WPCL 2BJ|x! x   @ Њ`Gazetteer p. ! x @` Њ 7. MONUMENTS IN FRANCE.  Note. French orthography is confused for several reasons. Accents are often omitted on capital letters and the usage of accents has changed over the last few centuries. Modern French writers often use modern forms, while nonFrench writers often omit the accents entirely. E.g. N=tre is often given as Notre, even in France. In place names, there is a tendency to combine words with hyphens, e.g. StGermaindesPr)s, but this is not consistently done. The words Rue, Avenue, Place, etc. are sometimes capitalised and sometimes not. In Paris, I will indicate the arrondissements by e.g. 5e, except the first is 1er. The French post codes for Paris begin 75 and then have the arrondissement number given as three digits, e.g. the 5th arr. has code 75005. I have generally put the house number before the street name, though the French often do it the other way.  7A. PARIS. 7A1. INSTITUTIONS.  CEMETERIES. Many details come from [Culbertson & Randall (3)]. See also the Panth)on below. MONTMARTRE CEMETERY is at 20 Avenue Rachel, 18e. A free list/map is provided by the Mairie de Paris at the entrance. Jean Bernard L)on FOUCAULT (18191868) is buried in Division 7 [Culbertson & Randall(3), pp.112-114]. Andr) Marie AMP.RE (17751836) is in Division 30 [Culbertson & Randall (3), pp.112113 & 127], with his son, a notable linguist. Andreas Hinz reports that he found LUCAS's grave here, near to Offenbach, but it is mostly illegible Lucas is not on the list/map and when I visited in 1998, I found that the main lists are in the cemetery office which is not open on weekends. I was unable to find it in Jan 2002, but Hinz later told me it is across the path from Offenbach, where I did not look. [Hare(2), p. 488] says De Bougainville's tomb is here, but I have now found that he had been in the cemetery of St. Pierre, on the top of Montmartre, just west of Sacr) Coeur, and this is only open on 1 Nov. He has been removed to the Panth)on, qv, but [ MGG ] says his heart remains at St. Pierre. The list/map mentions a Charles Fourier (philosopher and economist), but I don't know if he is any relation to the mathematician. GALOIS was buried in a common grave in MONTPARNASSE CEMETERY, 3 Boulevard Edgar Quinet, 14e, in 1832, but no trace of it remains [Solovyov]. Alexander ALEKHINE (18921946), World Chess Champion in 19271935 and 19371946, is buried in Montparnasse Cemetery with an appropriate statue [Schonberg, p. 171]. Urbain Jean Joseph LEVERRIER (1811-1877) is buried in Division 11 [Culbertson & Randall (3), p. 171]. Henri POINCAR( (18541912) is here [ MGG ]. Nicolas CONT( (17551805), inventor of the pencil, is buried in Division 25 [Culbertson & Randall (3), p. 181]. P.RE LACHAISE CEMETERY, 16 rue de Repos (or Boulevard M)nilmontant), 20e, is the largest in Paris, established in 1804 when the city was overflowing with corpses. Maps of the famous graves are obtainable near the entrances, but they don't list all of the following. Gustave FROMENT (18151865), inventor of the gyroscope (but see under Panth)on, below, and Foucault in Section 7A2) and a telegraph, is buried in Division 1 [Culbertson & Randall (3), p. 10]. Fran'ois ARAGO (17861853) is in Division 4 [Culbertson & Randall (3), pp. 8 & 10; MGG ]. Edward BRANLY (1844-1940), inventor of the Branly decoherer used in early radio, is in Division 10 [Culbertson & Randall (3), p. 23]. Augustin Jean FRESNEL (17881827) is in Division 14 [Culbertson & Randall (3), p.31]. JeanBaptiste DELAMBRE is in Division 10. Michel CHASLES (17931880) is in Division 17 [Culbertson & Randall (3), p.33]. Auguste COMTE (17981857), the philosopher, is in Division 17 [Culbertson & Randall (3), pp. 3336; MGG ]. Jean Fran'ois CHAMPOLLION (1790-1832), the decipherer of hieroglyphics, is in Division 18 [Culbertson&Randall (3), p.36; MGG ]. MONGE was also buried here in Division 18 facing the Grand Carrefour [ MGG ]. The tomb is shown in the Open University program Paris and the New Mathematics, part of the course on History of Mathematics. In 1989, the remains were translated to the Panth)on, qv below. J.N. HACHETTE, Monge's assistant, is beside the Monge tomb and FOURIER is nearby. Joseph Louis GAYLUSSAC (17781850) is in Division 26 [Culbertson & Randall (3), p. 34; MGG ]. Allan KARDEC (previously L)on RIVAIL) (18041869) began as a mathematician, then wrote on education and grammar, before becoming the leading spokesman for spiritualism! He is now in Division44 [Culbertson & Randall (3), pp. 5354], having previously been in Montmartre. There is a LALANDE tomb in Division 46 but I don't know if the mathematician/astronomer is buried there. Th)ophile GRAMME (16261901), Belgian inventor of a dynamo in 1869, is in Division 94 [Culbertson & Randall (3), p.85]. [Hare(2), pp. 244245] says Louis POINSOT (1777-1859) is buried to the left of the main path, near Rossini. LAPLACE was buried here, but in 1888 he was translated to Mailloc, near Beaumont, qv in Section 7B, and the tomb was moved to Beaumont. The remains of AB(LARD and H)lo5se were transferred to P/re Lachaise cemetery in 1817, where the graves are a shrine for unhappy lovers [Okey, pp. 9093]. Andreas Hinz reports that Camille JORDAN is here, near Victor Hugo. Both CURIEs were buried at SCEAUX [Wymer, p. 6:32], but in 1995, they were translated to the Panth)on she is the first woman there. The Montparnasse area lies over a complex of old quarries and tunnels known as the Catacombs and stacked with bones removed from old cemeteries in 1785 entrance in Place DenfertRochereau, 14e, on the east side of the approach to Av. G)n)ralLeclerc. LAVOISIER was buried here. ACAD(MIE DES SCIENCES. [ MGG France ] considers the 1635 founding of the Acad)mie Fran'aise as also the foundation of the Acad)mie des Sciences, but others consider it began about 1664 as a series of meetings of scientists, notably Pascal, Descartes, Gassendi, Huygens and Mersenne. In 1666, Colbert invited them to meet in the Royal Library and their first meeting was on 22 Dec 1666. In 1669 they adopted the name Acad)mie Royale des Sciences and transferred to meeting in the Louvre. Colbert got HUYGENS to come as the founding Director, living in the building from 1666 to 1681. It was suppressed by the Convention on 21 Dec 1792 and its functions were vested in a branch of the Institut National. In 1816, the original name was readopted and the Institut was renamed the Institut de France. Arago, Bailly, Biot, Borel, Buffon, L. Carnot, Cauchy, Clairaut (elected at age 18), Condorcet, d'Ocagne, D'Alembert, Fourier, Lacroix, Lagrange, Lalande, Langevin, Laplace, Legendre, Lemonnier, Libri, Monge, Navier, Ozanam, Poinsot, Poisson, Prony were members. Monge & Carnot were expelled in 1816. Fontenelle was the first Secretary. Delambre was Permanent Secretary and was succeeded by Fourier in 18221830. Arago succeeded Fourier. Clairaut was elected at age 12 in 1725. Borel was President in 1934. Vaucanson was Inspector of Mechanical Inventions in the mid 18C. DARBOUX was perpetual secretary in the early 20C. The Acad)mie occasionally awards a gold medal "Henri Poincar)" in mathematics. The recipients have been: Hadamard (1962); Deligne (1974); J.G.Thompson (1992). It is presently at Place de l'Institut, 23 Quai de Conti, 6e see below. [Pengelley & Pengelley, p.128] say you can ask to look around it and there is a quantity of busts and portraits. In 1665, the first scientific journal (at least in a vernacular language), the Journal des s'avans was started. It soon became the organ of the Acad)mie Royale des Sciences. (The Philosophical Transactions also started in 1665, and seems to just precede this. The Accademia dei Lincei had a short lived journal sometime in the 17C. The Acad)mie formally began its own journal with the Histoire de l'Acad)mie Royale des Sciences in 1729, which summarised the proceedings from 1666.) At a joint meeting of the Acad)mie des Sciences and the Acad)mie des BeauxArts on 19 Aug 1839, Arago first presented Daguerre's photographic process, the first practical method. Within four months, thirty editions of Daguerre's booklet had appeared. Arago immediately made suggestions for applications to astronomy. [Darius, pp. 1011.] In the early 17C, nine lovers of literature established a regular meeting. In 1635, Richelieu organized them into an Acad)mie Libre or ACAD(MIE FRAN&AIS. [Hare(2), pp. 512513] says the idea was due to Chancellor S)guier. It met in the PalaisRoyal, though [ MGG ] says early meetings were across the road at 6 Rue de Valois, but this may then have been an outbuilding of the palace. Bachet and Pascal's father were founder members. [Culbertson & Randall (3), p. 105. Okey, p. 213.] Hare adds that after Richelieu's death in 1642, S)guier became President for 30 years and the Acad)mie met in the H=tel S)guier, which was in the Cour des Fermes, 1er, between Rue du Bouloi and Rue du Louvre, but was demolished after S)guier's death in 1672. Its main function has been to regulate the French language. In 1762, it regularized the spelling of some 5000 words, about a quarter of those in common use. Estre became +tre, roy became roi, etc. This Acad)mie suffered interruption and reorganization in 17931816, similar to the Acad)mie des Sciences. Fontenelle, Buffon, D'Alembert, Bailly, Voltaire, Laplace and Fourier were members. The third great academy is the Acad)mie des Inscriptions et BellesLettres, sometimes called the Petite Acad)mie, dating from 1663. Fontenelle and Bailly were the first two persons to be members of all three great academies [Arago, p. 156]. Since Napol)on's time, all the Acad)mies have been housed in the INSTITUT DE FRANCE, founded in 1795, at Place de l'Institut, 23 Quai de Conti, 6e, facing the Pont des Artes. The building was founded by Mazarin's will of 1661 as the College of the Four Nations, opened in 1688 but expropriated by the Convention in 1795 [Okey, p. 222] or 1790 [ MGG ]. The Institut has a famous statue of VOLTAIRE in the nude by Jean Baptiste Pigalle (eponym of Place Pigalle) [Cronin, p.246], but I have recently seen it (or a copy?) in the Louvre, qv below. There is another statue of Voltaire in the small Place Honore Champion, behind the Institut at the end of Rue de Seine. AVIATION has significant origins in Paris. The brothers Joseph (17401810) and Jacques (tienne (1745-1799) Montgolfier sent up three hot air balloons at Annonay, near Lyon, the last on 5 Jun 1783. They then travelled to Paris to build larger balloons. The Acad)mie des Sciences heard of this and decided to build their own balloon, but they didn't know how the Montgolfiers had obtained lift so they decided to use hydrogen, recently discovered by Cavendish. J.A.C. Charles was commissioned to create a hydrogen generator and the brothers Robert created a rubberised fabric. They launched an unmanned balloon from the Champs de Mars on 27 Aug 1783. Supposedly someone asked Benjamin Franklin what use this might be and he made the reply "And what use is a newborn baby?" Meanwhile, on 19 Sep the Montgolfiers sent up a sheep, a duck and a rooster and they later even sent up some people in tethered balloons, including the physicist Piltre de Rozier in Oct 1783, from the factory of R)veillon at 31 Rue de Montreuil, Faubourg St. Antoine, 11e. On 21 Nov 1783, they launched the first balloon flight, from the Chteau de la Muette in the Bois de Boulogne. There were two persons on board: the pilot, Piltre de Rozier and a passenger, the Marquis d'Arlandes. ([ MGG ] says they started from the adjacent Jardin Ranelagh, 16e, where the All)e PiltredeRozier commemorates the launch site.) They went for 25 minutes, covering five miles, and landed unharmed at La ButteauxCailles, 13e. On 1 Dec 1783 (1782??), Charles and one of the Roberts ascended from the Tuileries Gardens and travelled 27 miles to Nesle this balloon was the ancestor of all later gas balloons. [C. H. GibbsSmith; Aeronautics 1: Early Flying up to the Reims Meeting ; HMSO for Science Museum, 1966, items 1 & 2. MGG .] A late 18C account says they went about 20 miles and landed, but then Charles went up on his own, ascending 3052 yards and recording the pressure and temperature and came down some four or five miles further on. On 6 Sep 1804, GayLussac ascended at Paris to 23,400 ft and later made several longer ascents, taking samples of the air which proved to have the same composition at all heights. The BIBLIOTH.QUE NATIONALE, 58 Rue de Richelieu, 2e, was the palace of Mazarin, where his library of 35,000 volumes was open to scholars [Okey, p. 222]. The collections date back to Charles V in the 14C, whose collection was in La Tour de Louvre. In the 15C, these collections were moved to the Chteau d'Amboise, but came back to Paris in the 16C. A copyright act was made in 1537 requiring a copy of every printed book to be given to the library. It has one of the five (or two) known Roman hand abaci (cf British Museum in Section 2B). Stewart Culin [ Chess and playing cards. Catalogue of games and implements for divination exhibited by the United States National Museum in connection with the Department of Arch%ology and Paleontology of the University of Pennsylvania at the Cotton States and International Exposition, Atlanta, Georgia, 1895 . IN: Report of the U. S. National Museum, year ending June 30, 1896 . Government Printing Office, Washington, 1898, pp. 665942 [there is a reprint by Ayer Co., Salem, Mass., c1990], p. 863] says that the oldest European chessmen have been in the Biblioth/que Nationale since the Revolution. These are six ivory pieces, reputedly given to the Abbey of St. Denis by Charlemagne. The dress and ornaments on the pieces are 9C Greek. [I wonder if this is because they were a gift from Byzantium?] The library includes two Gutenberg Bibles, MSS by Pascal, Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, and the original plaster for Houdon's bust of Voltaire [cf Voltaire in Section 7A2]. [ MGG . Hare(2), p. 508.] The library has 10 to 12 million books. In 19881996, a new building, the Biblioth/que Fran'ois Mitterand, was erected near the Gare d'Austerlitz to house all the books. It was opened on 17 Dec 1996. The BIBLIOTH.QUE STE. GENEVI.VE, 10 Place du Panth)on, 5e, is a large library for students at the Sorbonne. The reading room is a fine example of late 19C ironwork. There are busts in the entrance hall, including Buffon, Descartes, L'Hopital, Laplace, Pascal, Voltaire. The BUREAU DES LONGITUDES was founded in 1795 to administer the observatories and coordinate astronomy. In 1803, the conservation of the metric standards was entrusted to it, so it is probably the ancestor of the BUREAU INTERNATIONAL DES POIDS ET MESURES, in the SW suburb of S.VRES, though I find the Bureau still exists at 3 Rue Mazarine, 6e. [ MGG ] says it is in the Breteuil Pavilion on All)e de Mail in Parc St. Cloud, near the S/vres factory, which is a bit N of S/vres. Though the standards of length and time are now determined atomically, the most precise measurements of mass still depend on comparative weighing based on the standard kilogram kept here. The Assembly ordered the Acad)mie des Sciences to standardize weights and measures on 8 May 1790. The Acad)mie appointed a Commission of Lagrange, Borda, Condorcet, Laplace and Tillet to compare the decimal and duodecimal systems. Another Commission, with Monge instead of Tillet, was to examine how to make a standard of length. The Commissions continued functioning through the Revolution. A law of 17 Apr 1795 formally established the metric system. 16 marble standard metres (m/tres )talons) were erected in the most frequented parts of Paris between Feb 1796 and Dec 1797. The only survivor in its original place is in a courtyard at 36 rue de Vaugirard, across from the gates of the Palais du Luxembourg, 6e. This is intact, with a large inscription METRE. It shows a metre on the marble, subdivided into decimetres and some centimetres. There are brass ends of the metre. There is a descriptive plaque beside it. The only other surviving example was moved to the facade of the Ministry of Justice, 11/13 Place Vend=me, 1er, in 1848. It is in a poor state one of the end marks has been broken off. [DBS. Baillie&Salmon, p.122.] Delambre and M)chain measured the meridian from Dunkirk (qv in Section 7B) to Barcelona (qv under Spain in Section 10), completing their work in 1799 and leading to the formal definition of the metre on 10 Dec 1799. In 1812, it was decreed that a hybrid 'systeme usuelle' could be used. The metric system became the only legal system on 1 Jan 1840. [Thanks to Norman Biggs for sorting this out for me.] The CAF( DE LA R(GENCE was a centre for chess players in the 1819C. BONAPARTE, D'ALEMBERT, DIDEROT, ROUSSEAU, VOLTAIRE were regular habitues. [Okey, pp. 426427] says its prominence stopped when it removed from the Place du Palais Royal in 1852, though the Caf) continues at 161Rue St. Honor), 1er. The CAF( PROCOPE, Boulevard Ste Germain, 6e, by the Od)on Metro station, was the resort of VOLTAIRE and the other intellectuals of the Age of Reason. The modern (1986) CIT( DES SCIENCES ET DE L'INDUSTRIE at La Villette (30 Ave. CorentinCariou, 19e) is perhaps the largest popular science museum in the world. As with most such museums, there is little actual historical material on display, but has lots of interactive exhibits. There are some computer based displays, but not so many as to be boring. It has a nice exhibition section on mathematics, with some quite sophisticated mathematics, e.g. triangulations of Delaunay and a rotating chamber (inertial merrygoround) which one can ride in and see the effects on trajectories of thrown balls, etc. There is a turbulent fountain which displays chaotic behaviour. It is one of the few places where I actually learned something from the computer terminal exhibits. There are also some videos of discussions with mathematicians including JeanPierre Kahane and Adrian Douady. I also saw a large Jacquard loom. The computing exhibition is also nice and has a nice video on the Whirlwind and SAGE projects which led to the development of core memory. The section on light games has some nice perspective rooms. WARNING the Museum is vast and the exhibit on any one subject can occupy one for several hours; allow a long day or several short days to see it thoroughly. There is a Mini Guide available is several languages, but some exhibits have changed since it appeared. There is a spherical cinema, called La G)ode, nearby. The Metro station of CLUNYSORBONNE (corner of Boulevard St. Michel and Boulevard St. Germain, 5e) has its roof decorated with mosaic facsimiles of the signatures of noted Parisians, including Bachelard, Bergson, Champollion, Marie Curie, Descartes, Gay Lussac, Pascal, Poincare (given without the accent), Rousseau, Voltaire. The COLL.GE ROYAL (des Trois Langues) was founded by Fran'ois I in 1529 or 1530 as an antithesis or antagonist to the narrow scholasticism of the University (= Sorbonne). [Okey, p. 163] says this was an institutionalization of a number of schools or masters which had started teaching Greek. ERASMUS was offered the Directorship in 1517, but declined. The idea was repromoted by the king's confessor, Guillaume Parvi, and Guillaume Bud), who became the first director in 1530. Initially there were 12 professors, including mathematics and philosophy, who gave free lectures. Construction of a building did not start until 1610 and was completed in 1842. [Okey, pp. 163164.] [Pengelley & Pengelley, p.116] say that the Coll/ge was founded in its present form by Louis XV in 1732. It is now the COLL.GE DE FRANCE at 11 Place M. Bertholet, 5e, in the Rue des (coles, beside the Sorbonne. There were 28 professors, c1887 [Hare (2), p. 366]. It is independent of the University, with 50 Professors who still deliver free lectures. There are no classes and the Coll/ge gives no degrees. AMP.RE, BERGSON, BERTHOLET, BIOT, CAUCHY, CHAMPOLLION, Oronce FINE (= Orontius Finaeus) (from 1532), FORCADEL, FOURIER(?), GASSENDI, HADAMARD, JOLIOTCURIE, LACROIX, LEBESGUE, LIOUVILLE (during 1851-1882), PERRIN, POISSON(?), Petrus RAMUS (1515-1572, author of a popular arithmetic in 1555 and a logic which displaced Aristotle), ROBERVAL were here. CHAMPOLLION was a student and later was Professor of Archaeology in 18301832. DIRICHLET was a student. Camille JORDAN (18381922) taught here. Szolem MANDELBROJT (18991983) was professor from 1938. SERRE was here from 1956. In the courtyard were lists of all the Professors from the foundation to the present, and a statue of Bud). [Cronin, p. 92.] However, when I visited in 2002, the lists and the statue of Bud) were gone and there was a statue of Champollion. (Perhaps the missing items are in another courtyard??) Fr)d)ric JoliotCurie was here and built a cyclotron to test his theory of nuclear fission in 1948 [ MGG ]. The CONCIERGERIE is part of the Palais de la Cit) and is generally visited jointly with the Sainte-Chapelle. It is notorious as the place where the condemned of the Revolution, especially the Terror, were kept for trial and then taken out for execution. The historical placards include pictures of BAILLY and LAVOISIER who were victims. There is a large list of the victims of the Terror in 17921793 which has an entry for Bailli (sic) but doesn't include Lavoisier or any of the other mathematical victims who were killed at later dates. The Guardroom on the lower floor has a central pillar whose capital includes a carving thought to be AB(LARD and Heloise. See also Tour de l'Horologe, which is the NE corner of the building. The CONSERVATOIRE NATIONAL DES ARTS ET M(TIERS, 292 Rue Saint Martin, 3e, contains the MUS(E NATIONAL DE TECHNIQUES (apparently now called the Mus)e du Conservatoire National des Arts et M)tiers). This is the oldest technical museum in the world, created by the Convention in 1794 and installed in 1799. It was founded on the initiative of Abbot Gr)goire. It occupies the buildings of the priory of St. Martin des Champs, founded in 1060. It is the best preserved monastic establishment in Paris, with some of the 11C building preserved. The library occupies the former refectory, built in the 13C, with its pulpit intact. [Hare (2), pp.136-138.] Jacques de VAUCANSON (17091782) left his extensive collections to the King in 1783 and this led to the formation of the Conservatoire and Mus)e. [Danilov, pp. 14 & 16.] There are busts of Painlev)(?) and Coulomb on the facade and a statue of Papin to the side. DUPIN was professor of Mechanics here from 1819. The whole museum was being extensively restored in 19921997 and many exhibits were closed. Also they are building a depot at St. Denis and much of the material may go there. Rue Vaucanson is just to the east of the site. It contains an early version of FOUCAULT's pendulum and the later version used by Flammarion (see under the Panth)on, below), PASCAL's first adding machine, LAVOISIER's laboratory (including his balances, thermometers, etc.), an early VOLTAic pile, instruments belonging to the physicist CHARLES, the transmitting station from the Eiffel Tower, cameras of Niepce, Daguerre and Edison, the magic lantern of the Lumi/re brothers, astrolabes, clocks, microscopes, and other instruments, etc., etc. The ball of Foucault's 1851 pendulum is preserved here and the 1855 support and drive mechanism is in daily use [photos in Foiret et al., pp. 9 & 18 and colour plates 5 & 6]. SYLVESTER suggested and Foucault created a mechanism to show how the pendulum behaves at different latitudes and this is here, having been presented by Foucault's widow [Foiret et al., pp. 2324 & colour plate 7]. POINSOT suggested and Foucault created the gyroscope, which also demonstrates the rotation of the earth an 1851 version is here [Foiret et al., pp. 811 & 27]. (However, J. G. D. Bohnenberger described such a device for demonstrating precession in 1817, but he may not have realised that it showed the rotation of the earth [Henk J. M. Bos; Descriptive Catalogue Mechanical Instruments in the Utrecht University Museum ; Utrecht University Museum, 1968, p. 59]. A version of Vaucanson's famous automaton duck, which even ate and excreted, is supposed to be here, though it is unclear if this is the original of 1738 [Reichardt, p. 13, with photo; drawing in Hillier, p. 45]. However, it wasn't there when I visited in 1992. [Hillier, p. 46] says its whereabouts is unknown, though other makers made similar ducks, and that the Conservatoire has none of Vaucanson's automata. Vaucanson also made a flute player and a pipe and tabor player all these were exhibited in 1738. [Byard, plate 7] is a 1738 illustration of the three on exhibition. [Byard, p. 67] says they no longer exist and their fate is uncertain. [ MGG ] says that Marie Antoinette's dulcimer playing puppet of 1784 is here. The historic automata of RobertHoudin were acquired by Georges Melies, the cinema pioneer, and given to the Conservatoire in the 1920s. Due to neglect, they were stored in an attic which collapsed during a heavy rain and were all destroyed. [Hillier, p. 69.] [ MGG France ] says it has MarieAntoinette's automaton Dulcimer Player. I have seen a picture of a 1750 Vaucanson loom with instructions on a perforated cylinder, which is currently here. The Mus)e also has an early JACQUARD loom. I believe the Mus)e also has the earliest FALCON loom, etc.(??) VANDERMONDE was a Director. The Mus)e has two original examples of the Tower of Hanoi presented and inscribed by LUCAS in 1888. This is the only place where he is known to have definitely acknowledged his invention of the Tower of Hanoi. A. SAINTLAGU,, who wrote several recreational mathematics books including an early book on graph theory, was Professor here around 1927. A few nonmathematical items in the Mus)e are: Cugnot's 1771 steam carriage; Thimonnier's 1825 sewing machine; the Lumi/re brothers cinema apparatus of 1895; the airplane that Bleriot flew on the first crossChannel flight. The short-lived first (COLE NORMALE (SUP(RIEURE) had lectures in the Amphitheatre of the Jardin des Plantes, 5e. This is shown in the Open University program Paris and the New Mathematics, part of the course on History of Mathematics. The (cole was formed early in the Revolution, c1794, to provide teachers for the schools all the teachers having gone into the army. Here LAPLACE, LAGRANGE, LEGENDRE(?), MONGE, LACROIX, etc. would lecture to 1200 students (Arago [p. 386] says 1500) and the idea of its successor, the (COLE POLYTECHNIQUE, was formed. Monge is generally credited with being the principal founder of both (coles. FOURIER was a student about 1794. It was here that Monge first publicly lectured on his descriptive geometry in the Year 3 (1795) the lectures were edited by J. N. HACHETTE and published as a book in 1799 while Monge was in Egypt. Lagrange lectured from 1795. The (cole Normale constituted a revolution in teaching the foremost researchers were appointed to lecture (previously research and teaching were separate) and they were required to lecture more or less extemporaneously i.e. they were not to recite written lectures. Shorthand writers made transcripts of the lectures, which were distributed to all the students (and have recently been republished!). Napol)on even attended lectures here. [Arago, pp. 386391]. The (cole Normale was closed in 1822, but it was reopened as the PREPARATORY SCHOOL in 1826, where GALOIS was a student in 1830 (or 1829) until he was expelled in the following year. BONNET taught here. PASTEUR was a student of chemistry in 18431848 and began the studies of crystals that led to his discovery of stereoisomerism. He received a doctorate in crystallography in 1847. He returned as Director of Scientific Studies in 18571867. [Wymer, p. 2:7, 10, 15.] HERMITE was Professor at the later (COLE NORMALE (SUP(RIEURE) in c1867. LUCAS was a student in 18611864. PAINLEV( was a student, getting his doctorate in 1887. Jules TANNERY (18481910) was Deputy Director in charge of science from 1884 to 1901. (Jean) Gaston DARBOUX (18421917 (or 1912?)) was a student and taught here, attracting BOREL as a student in 18891893. (lie CARTAN entered in 1888. Borel returned in 1897 and remained for the rest of his life. In 1910, he succeeded TANNERY as Deputy Director in charge of science, and the Borels then lived in the (cole. BAIRE was a student in 18921895. GOURSAT taught here from 1885. LEBESGUE was a student in 18941899. PICARD and APPELL were teachers in the late 19C. CHEVALLEY, WEIL (19221925, [Cartan] says he read Riemann and did all his examinations in his first year, thesis in 1928), H. CARTAN (19231926, thesis in 1928), DELSARTE (entered 1922), van HEIJENOORT, PAD( were students. H. CARTAN was professor. FR(CHET was here in the 1930s. The (cole has been at 45 Rue d'Ulm, 5e, south of the Panth)on, from 1847, but has expanded its building and parts have since moved out of Paris. For years, it was the most elite college in France, admitting only 55 students per year. In the courtyard are busts of Amp/re, Descartes, GayLussac, Lavoisier, Voltaire, etc. On the right is the building where Pasteur worked and is now the school's infirmary. The room where he carried out the experiments that disproved spontaneous generation is now a cupboard for children's toys, with a plaque outside it. [Pengelley & Pengelley, pp.119120.] The (COLE POLYTECHNIQUE, founded in the Year 3 (1794/1795), continuation of the (cole Normale, originally named the (cole Centrale des Travaux Publics, moved in 1805 to a site on the Place Monge, a bit to the east of the University quarter indeed it was on the site of the 14C College of Navarre. It has now removed to the suburb of Palaiseau and the square is now the Square Langevin, 5e, and the name Place Monge has been moved south on the Rue Monge. A large back gate with the name faces onto the minisquare where Rue Descartes and Rue de l'(cole Polytechnique meet Rue de la Montagne SteGenevi/ve; there are busts of Lagrange, Laplace and, probably, Monge (the name has worn away leaving only the final e). In the minisquare is a cafe/restaurant named 'La M)thode', probably the only restaurant anywhere named for a mathematics book. At 1 rue de l'(cole Polytechnique is another restaurant named 'Bar de l'X', probably the only restaurant anywhere named for an algebraic symbol! (Both restaurants are good.) The building is now the Ministry of Research and Technology; one can go into the garden but I saw nothing of mathematical interest in it. MONGE was a main founder of the (cole and a professor from 1795. LAPLACE, LAGRANGE, LEGENDRE, FOURIER, CARNOT, VANDERMONDE, etc. were professors. Lagrange began lecturing in 1797. LACROIX assisted Monge. POINSOT was a student in the first class, 17941797. GAYLUSSAC was a student from 1797 and later was a teacher. G. PLANA was a student in 18001803. ARAGO was a student from 1803 and succeeded Monge in 1809 until 1830. CAUCHY was a student in 1805-1807 and a professor in 1815-1830. AMP.RE was professor of mathematics from 1809. NAVIER, CORIOLIS, MANNHEIM were professors. DUPIN was a student. LIOUVILLE was a student in 1825-1827. He was a r)p)titeur in 1831-1838 and Professor of Analysis in 1838-1851. [Stander.] He founded his Journal de Math)matiques pures et appliqu)es in 1836. He discovered transcendental numbers in 1844. STURM was here in the same period. COMTE was a student and a teacher. Gaspard De PRONY (17551839) was the first Professor of Analysis, 1794-1815. POISSON was a student, then assistant professor in 1802 and succeeded Fourier in 1806, when he was 25. GALOIS was rejected twice, c1829 supposedly he threw a blackboard eraser at an examiner for asking a simple question. Sylvestre Fran'ois LACROIX (17651843) succeeded Lagrange. POINSOT was Professor of Analysis and Mechanics in 1809-1816, but another source says he was the first such professor in 18161825. NAVIER was Professor of Analysis and Mechanics from 1819. CHASLES taught geodesy, astronomy and applied mathematics here in 18411851. HERMITE was a student for one year in c1840 but was sent away because his lame leg made him unfit for military service. He was later a lecturer from c1862. [Stander (2).] BONNET taught here. PONCELET was Commandant in 1848-1850. Camille JORDAN (18381922) studied engineering here, learning mathematics in his spare time. He taught here in 18731912. Paul TANNERY (c18431904) was a student. BECQUEREL was a student and then Professor of Physics from 1895. Matthieu Paul Hermann LAURENT (18411908) was here. GOURSAT taught here from 1885. HADAMARD was a professor. Philbert Maurice D'OCAGNE (1862-1938) was Professor of Geometry. Paul L(VY (18861971) was Professor of Analysis in 1920-1959. Gaston (Maurice) JULIA (18931978) was a professor. MANDELBROT was a student. The (cole was the model for most later technical schools, particularly in the USA e.g. West Point, MIT. The (COLE NATIONALE DES PONTS ET CHAUSS(ES is at 28 Rue des SaintsP/res, 7e. The Corps des Ponts et Chauss)es was established in 1716. The (cole was founded in 1747 it was the world's first engineering school. Claude Louis Marie Henri NAVIER (17851836) was a student and later a professor. CAUCHY was a student in 1807-1809. LIOUVILLE was a student in 1827-1831. Gaspard De PRONY (17551839) was Director from 1799 until his death. The (COLE SUP(RIEURE DE PHYSIQUE ET DE CHIMIE INDUSTRIELLES DE LA VILLE DE PARIS was at 10 Rue Vauquelin, 5e, adjacent to the (cole Normale Sup)rieure. Pierre CURIE was a Professor here when Marie Sklodovska came in 1894, seeking a doctoral project. They were married in 1895. It was in a vanished shed in the courtyard that Marie and Pierre CURIE processed several tons of material to obtain samples of radium and polonium [photo in Wymer, p.6:22]. [ MGG France ] says the outline of the shed is shown in the paving pattern of the courtyard of the School. She received her doctorate and they received the Nobel Prize in Physics, shared with Becquerel, in 1903. The Institut Curie was built for her in 1914 at 26 Rue d'Ulm, 5e, (apparently now entered from 11 Rue PierreetMarieCurie), near the (cole Normale Sup)rieure. (My 1986 MGG shows the Institut de Radium also on the Rue d'Ulm, but my 1991 map shows the site as part of the (cole Nationale Sup)rieure de Chimie.) [Pengelley & Pengelley, pp. 120122] say little of the old school survives except the original portico and there is a plaque outside commemorating the discovery. Outside the Director's office is a case with some of the Curies' apparatus and notes you have to ask to see this. The EIFFEL TOWER, 7e, was built in 26 months and opened in Mar 1889 for the Universal Exposition. it is 320.75 m (1051 ft) high and only weighs 7000 tons less than the air around it! In LES HALLES, 1er, the Bourse du Commerce is on the site of the H=tel de Soissons, built by Queen Catherine de Medicis in the late 16C. She had an observatory here and an astrologer. [Hare (2), pp. 113114; MGG ] say the only surviving part is a 30 m high fluted column erected for the observatory in 1572 and now attached to the side wall south of the Bourse. Hare says it bears a sundial, but I didn't notice it on a recent visit. The H<TEL DE VILLE (= City Hall), 4e, includes many allegorical paintings e.g. 'Meteorology' and 'Electricity' perhaps there is some Mathematics?? [Cronin, p. 204]. Institut de France see under Acad)mie Fran'ais, above. The INSTITUT DU MONDE ARABE, 1 rue des Foss)sSaintBernard, 5e, has a museum and an active program of exhibitions. A 1995 guide shows an astrolabe and says the Museum owns one of the oldest examples. The INSTITUT HENRI POINCAR( was founded by BOREL in 1927. He served as Director or Joint Director until his death in 1956. Prince LouisVictor de BROGLIE was here and at the Sorbonne when he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1929 for his discovery that matter had wave properties. FR(CHET was here in the 1930s. MANDELBROT taught here. It is part of the (cole Pratique des Hautes (tudes, 11 Rue PierreetMarie Curie, 5e. Institut Pasteur see under Pasteur in Section 7A2. The JARDIN DES PLANTES, 5e, was essentially a herb and exotic plant garden, then called Le Jardin Royal, until George Louis Leclerc BUFFON was appointed director in 1739. He laid out the gardens from 1739, which include a pleasant labyrinth around a hill. and turned the institution into one of the great botanical and natural history research establishments. There is a monument or plaque to Buffon near the corner of Rue Buffon and Rue Geoffroy Saint Hilaire. In the Jardin are also the Amphitheatre see under (cole Normale, above and Buffon's house cf Section 7A2. Also in the Jardin is the Mus)e National d'Histoire Naturelle, where BECQUEREL was born and worked his father was a professor of physics here. A plaque on the building in rue Cuvier records that it was here that Becquerel discovered radioactivity (a term later coined by Marie Curie) on 1 March 1896. The LEFT BANK area around the universities and polytechnics, mostly in the 5e, has a number of streets and squares named for mathematicians and related scientists: ARAGO, Pierre et Marie CURIE, DESCARTES, GAYLUSSAC, LAGRANGE, LANGEVIN, LAPLACE, LEVERRIER, MONGE and PASCAL [Alexanderson]. Elsewhere (not always on the Left Bank) are streets named for: AMP.RE, BAILLY, BIOT, Maurice et Louis de BROGLIE, CASSINI, CAUCHY, CHAMPOLLION, CLAIRAUT, CONDORCET, D'ALEMBERT, DELAMBRE, D'OCAGNE, DUPIN, ERASMUS, EULER, FERMAT, FOUCAULT, FRESNEL, GASSENDI, HUYGENS, LACROIX, LALANDE, LEGENDRE, LEIBNIZ, M(CHAIN, NEWTON, OZANAM, PAINLEV(, POINSOT, ROBERVAL, ROUSSEAU [Alexanderson; Michelin map of Paris; Hare (2)]. I had remembered seeing a park or square named for PERRIN, but it was not in the index of my map. However, in 1998, I relocated it it is the space in front of the Champs (lys)es entrance of the Grand Palais, actually on the Ave. du General Eisenhower, 8e, and it is labelled in small print on my map. There is a bas relief monument to Perrin on the south side. On the Right Bank, near the Louvre, are a Place and a Rue des Pyramides, as well as a Pyramides Metro station, all 1er, but these are named for the Napoleonic Battle of the Pyramids, rather than from any geometric reason [Hare, p.8]. LAGRANGE, BERTHOLET, LAPLACE and MONGE were early members of the LEGION OF HONOUR in 1803. Lagrange was made a Grand officer in 1804. There is a Museum of the Legion of Honour at 2 Rue de Bellechasse, 7e, by the Mus)e d'Orsay, but I don't know if it has anything of interest. The MUS(E DU LOUVRE, 1er, has a modern monumental entrance through a glass pyramid designed by I. M. Pei. It contains some of LEONARDO DA VINCI's most famous works. One of Paolo UCCELLO's panels of 'The Battle of San Romano', displaying his mastery of perspective, is here (the others are in the National Gallery, London (Section 2B) and the Uffizi Gallery, Florence (Section 9A2)). Holbein's 1528 portrait of Nicolas KRATZER showing him constructing a dial and with numerous mathematical instruments is here, as is Holbein's portrait of ERASMUS. DFRER's self portrait at age 22 is here. The Richelieu wing was reorganized in 1997 and many items have been relocated. Area 29 of French Sculptures has become a Salle des Grandes Hommes and contains statues of a number of scientists. There is a version of the famous Houdon bust of VOLTAIRE [cf Voltaire in Section 7A2] as well as a Houdon statue of him (if I read my notes correctly). There are also a Houdon bust of ROUSSEAU and his terra cotta models for the busts of DIDEROT and FRANKLIN. These are very familiar images as Houdon made many replicas of his works to avoid starvation during the Revolution [Okey, p. 348]. The statue of Voltaire nude, by Jean Baptiste Pigalle (eponym of Place Pigalle), is here, though he is tactfully draped with a 'philosopher's sash'. (This was in the Institut de France, qv above, or they have another version.) The series of Grandes Hommes includes PASCAL and D'ALEMBERT. There are other busts or portraits of ARAGO and DESCARTES (attributed to Hals or Bourdon [Hare, p.49]). There is a sculpture of Geometry by Legros [Hare(2), p. 97] I recently saw a (different??) sculpture of Geometry in the hall of 1619C Italian Sculptures. There are tombs of a Roberte Legendre and her husband Louis Poncher, from 1522, in the Louvre [Okey, p. 343; Hare (2), p. 94], but I don't know if there is any connection with the mathematician. Room 6 of the Arts of Islam has some astrolabes, a proportional compass and several celestial spheres, including ones from 1145 and 1285. Rooms 1113 have some wonderful Iznik pottery. Room 23 has a game box from c1500 with boards for chess, m)relles (ninemen's morris), fox and hens, glic(?) and backgammon. there are also chessmen and backgammon pieces from 11C to 16C and a bone cubooctahedral die from the early 11C. In the Assyrian Art galleries are some of the colossal winged bulls and one of these has a Royal Game of Ur board scratched on the base cf British Museum in Section 2B. The LYC(E CHARLEMAGNE is on Rue Charlemagne, 4e, near the Metro stop St. Paul. BURDON and LUCAS taught here in 18761879 and 18901891. The LYC(E HENRI IV is just east of the Panth)on, 5e, comprising much of the abbey of Ste. Genevi/ve. It was also called the Lyc)e Napol)on (or Bonaparte) for a while and is sometimes called a coll/ge. Zerah COLBURN was a student briefly in c1815. BOURDON was a professor here. Louis POINSOT (17771859) was professor here from 1819, but another source says he was here until 1816. The LYC(E LOUIS LE GRAND, Rue Cujas, 5e, between the Sorbonne and the Panth)on, was supported by Louis XIV. It was originally the College of Clermont. It was a school run by the Jesuits for many years. In the 1718C, it was the leading college of the university. After the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1763, it became the seat of the university and the main college, with 26 small colleges being suppressed and only ten left. VOLTAIRE was a student from 1704. During the Revolution, it was used as a prison, then became the Lyc)e Imperiale before reverting to its earlier name. In later years, GALOIS and BOREL were students. Some of the original buildings survive. [Cronin, p. 103. Okey, pp. 105106. Hare (2), pp. 365366.] The MUS(E DE CLUNY (= Mus)e National du Moyen Age, 8 Place Paul Painlev), 5e) is a wonderful museum of medieval material, containing the six justly famous tapestries of the Lady and the Unicorn. It is an unlikely place to find mathematics, but there is handsome sundial dated 1674 on the side of the staircase tower in the courtyard and a simpler sundial a bit to the right. In room X is a 15C card from some sort of educational game (I don't know of any earlier European example of an extant card). Also in Room X, at the staircase, is a tapestry of Arithmetic, from a series of the Liberal Arts, made c1520. Several people are standing around a table doing accounts, both with counters and in writing. In Room 20, the Chapel, dating from c1500, is a fine carved example of the three rabbits pattern. In Room 22 is a stained glass window of c1435 showing two people playing chess. The Mus)e National d'Histoire Naturelle is located in the Jardin des Plantes, qv. Mus)e Pasteur see under Pasteur in Section 7A2. The Cathedral Square (the Place du Parvis) in front of NOTREDAME, 4e, is the zero point for distances from Paris there is a bronze star marking the centre of Paris, from which all road distances are measured. The Cloister of Notre Dame, on the north side of the church, was the earliest academic area in Paris, where Anselm debated Roscelin and Ab)lard (qv in Section 7A2) debated St. Bernard. Nothing remains except some street names: Rue du Clo3tre Notre Dame, Rue des Chanoinesses, Rue des Chantres. [Hare(2), p. 314.] See also the University, below. The church of Saint Jean-le-Rond, where d'Alembert was abandoned, was the baptistery of NotreDame, against the north tower at the end of Rue du Clo3tre Notre Dame, and was destroyed in 1748. Under the figure of Christ on the central pillar of the centre portal are basreliefs of the seven liberal arts arithmetic, geometry and astronomy are among these. The portal of the Virgin under the north tower includes reliefs of the zodiac and the seasons. During the Revolution, it was proposed to destroy the superstitious images on the west doors, but it was argued that they were images relating to astronomy, philosophy and the arts. The astronomer Dupuis was asked to advise and the carvings were reprieved. [Okey, p. 299]. Several persons of mathematical interest have been connected with the Paris OBSERVATORY, 61 Ave. de l'Observatoire, 14e, to the south of the Luxembourg Gardens. Colbert persuaded Louis XIV to establish this in 1667 and then got CASSINI to become first Director, making it the second national observatory the one in Copenhagen opened in 1637 but later burnt down [P. Moore (4), p. 15]. It was built in 16671672 to designs of Claude Perrault (brother of the collector of fairy tales, he was also designer of part of the Louvre and died from a disease contracted while dissecting a camel! [Cronin, pp. 183 & 226227]). While awaiting the completion of the building, Louis installed Cassini in a tower of the Chteau of StGermainenLaye [ MGG ], west of Paris. Unfortunately, the construction of the Observatory was designed for appearance rather than use and Cassini found that its turret restricted observing so much that he set up his telescopes in the garden [P. Moore (4), p. 16]. The Observatory occupies over a third of the former Luxembourg Gardens and [Okey, p. 322] laments this loss about 250 years afterward! The building contains no iron, in order to avoid deflecting compasses. Four CASSINIs, ARAGO and LEVERRIER (or Le Verrier or LeVerrier) were directors. Giovanni (or Gian) Domenico (= Jean Dominique) Cassini (16251712) came to Paris as the first Director in 1667. He discovered four moons of Saturn in 16711684 and, in 1675, the division in the rings of Saturn named for him. He proposed the 'ovals of Cassini' as alternatives to Kepler's ellipses. He made the first reasonable calculation of the distance from the earth to the sun, getting, getting 86,000,000 miles (s140,000,000km) [P. Moore (4), p. 25]. Died at the Observatory. Olaus ROEMER (or Ole R?mer) (16441710) was Cassini's assistant and first determined the speed of light here in 1675, by observing differences in times for the moons of Jupiter depending on whether the earth was near or far from Jupiter, getting about 3.2x108Ġm/sec. (However, another source says he didn't compute the speed, merely noted that there was a difference, which showed that light had a finite speed. Others did the calculation, using various values for the distance of the earth from the sun and obtained results ranging from 2.6to5.6x108 m/sec, all of which are attributed to Roemer. [Sobel, pp. 2930] says he calculated the speed in 1676 and got a slight underestimate. [Don Glass, ed.; Why You Can Never Get to the End of the Rainbow and Other Moments of Science ; Indiana Univ Press, Bloomington, Indiana, 1993, p. 102] says Roemer announced his results to the Acad)mie des Sciences in Sep 1676, correctly predicting the eclipse of Io on 9 Nov would be 10minutes late and says Roemer got a speed of light about 2.3 x 108 m/sec.) In 1669, Jean Picard (16201682) surveyed a degree of the meridian near Paris (but cf Maupertuis in Section 7A2). This result was so successful that it influenced Newton and led to a project of accurately mapping the coast of France. This was done in 1681 with La Hire and Picard making measurements at French ports while Cassini made corresponding measurements at Paris. The resulting map was presented to Louis XIV in 1682, when Louis is said to have remarked that the astronomers had reduced his kingdom more than his wars had, and published in 1693. An annual almanac or ephemeris was started in 1679, nearly a century before the English version, with Picard as first editor. In 1671, Jean RICHER went to Cayenne, French Guiana (now Guyane), 5o north of the equator, while Cassini (I) remained in Paris they made simultaneous observations and determined the parallax of Mars and hence the size of the solar system was first determined to reasonable accuracy. They got 86,000,000 miles for the distance from the sun to the earth. Jacques Cassini (16771756), son of the above Cassini, was born at the Observatory and succeeded his father as Director in 1712. In 1697, he travelled to England and determined the relative longitude of Greenwich, by use of the moons of Jupiter, finding it 9' 10" of time west of Paris in 1902, the value was found to be 9'20.974" of time = 2o 20.2435' of angle, but see below [D)barbat]. In 1713, he carried out the measurement along the meridian from Dunkerque to Perpignan. He started the map of France, continued by his son. He died at Thury, near Clermont. C)sar Fran'ois Cassini de Thury (17141784), son of the above, was born at the Observatory and succeeded his father, but due to administrative changes, he did not become Director until 1771. His principal work was a 1:870,000 map of France in 18 sheets and a 1:86,4000 map in 182 sheets. In 1784, he suggested linking the surveys of France and England. Died at Thury. Count Jacques (or Jean??) Dominique Cassini (17481845), son of the above, was born at the Observatory and succeeded his father as Director in 1784, but withdrew to Thury in 1794. He directed the French side of the survey linking France and England, using a circle designed by Borda and built by Lenoir. Cassini used two different models for the shape of the earth and obtained 9' 18.6" and 9' 20.6", but felt the first value was more correct. Roy, on the English side, obtained 9' 18.8". In 1987, the Ordnance Survey and the Paris Observatory commemorated the bicentenary of this measurement by redoing it using special GPS (Global Positioning System) equipment. The results were accurate to few centimetres, but my source doesn't state the value. [D)barbat.] LALANDE was Director from 1768 until his death in 1807. LAPLACE was also a director. ARAGO was Laplace's assistant from 1806 and then was co-worker with BIOT [Arago, pp. 1415 & 18] and later Director. In 1825, Arago, Mathieu and Kater determined the distance between Paris and Greenwich as 9' 21.62" of time. There is a monument to Arago on the Meridian just across Boulevard Arago at the southern end of the Observatory grounds. There are statues to LAPLACE and LEVERRIER (in front of the building) and a plaque to Roemer on the front of the building. FOUCAULT was physicist here (see also under the PANTH(ON, below, and under Foucault in Section 7A2). LUCAS was an assistant to LeVerrier in c18641870. Pierre FATOU worked here from about 1906. In 1902, Christie, Dyson and others, working with Loewy, the Director of the Paris Observatory and using telegraphic links, determined the distance between Greenwich and Paris as 9' 20.932" and 9' 20.994  .013 " with the variability due to the personal equations of the observers. The meridian of Paris passes through the building, being officially fixed on 21 Jun 1667 (the summer solstice of that year). There is a large South Bearing between the Boulevard Jourdan and the Avenue de la Tunisie in the Parc Montsouris, 14e, near the RER station Cit) Universitaire. A North Bearing of 1736 is on Montmartre near to the Moulin de la Galette [ MGG ]. France refused to adopt the 1884 treaty fixing the Prime Meridian at Greenwich until 1911. To commemorate the Millennium, a large number of medallions bearing the name ARAGO, with a N and S arrow, were installed along the meridian across France. They are not large, perhaps 10cm in diameter, set into the sidewalk (= pavement (UK)) and not very conspicuous. There is one behind the Luxembourg Palace, close to the sentry at the west side of the palace, clearly showing that the great vista through the gardens to the Observatory is not quite directly south. Another is in front of the palace, on the south side of Rue de Vaugirard, between Rue Garanci/re and Rue de Tournon. Another is at the entrance to the Louvre from the Place du Palais Royal. The Observatory has contained the International Time Bureau since its founding in 1919. This supervises Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The Observatory started the first speaking clock service on 14 Feb 1933. There is a small museum which has occasional tours (first Saturday of each month at 2:30 you must write to the Director in advance at 61 Ave. de l'Observatoire, F-75014, Paris) [Baillie&Salmon, p.138] say "Visiting the Observatoire is a complicated procedure and all you'll see are old maps and instruments." [ MGG ] says there is "a small museum of old instruments, modern equipment in the park and dome of the upper terrace." The gardens are open, but not in the winter. Rue Cassini is just north of the building and there are a Avenue de l'Observatoire and a Fontaine de l'Observatoire nearby, while Boulevard Arago is to the south. An unusual political application of mathematics occurred in 1904 when the three mathematicians APPELL, DARBOUX and POINCAR( were appointed to study the authenticity of the memorandum (the 'Bordereau') which had led to DREYFUS' conviction as a traitor in 1894. The 'macromicrom/tre' of the Observatory, an instrument for measuring astronomical plates, was used to make a large number of measurements, which were carried out by various members of the staff of the Observatory. The mathematicians' report demonstrated that Bertillon's reassembly of the pieces of the memorandum was incorrect and his statistical deductions from it were unjustified. The memorandum was declared a forgery in 1906 and Dreyfus was rehabilitated. See [Suzanne D)barbat; An unusual use of an astronomical instrument: The Dreyfus affair and the Paris 'macromicrom/tre'; J.for the History of Astronomy 27 (1996) 45-52], though this is not very clear how the measurements were used. The PALAIS DE LA D(COUVERTE, Ave. Franklin Roosevelt, 8e, is located in part of the Grand Palais. It was established by Jean PERRIN in 1937 to present science to the public. It is one of the ancestors of the modern 'handson' science centres rather than a museum in the classical sense. There is a plaque, with basrelief, commemorating Perrin, on the west side of the little Square Jean Perrin which lies on the north side of the Palais but which is now used as the forecourt to the Porte Champs (lys)es of the Grand Palais. The Palais has fine demonstration of turning a sphere inside out by means of a sequence of models following Bernard MORIN's method. The PANTH(ON, Place du Panth)on, 5e, was originally intended as a new Church of Ste. Genevi/ve and has alternated several times between church and monument see [Cronin, pp. 104105; Okey, pp. 254255; Hare(2), pp. 359362]. The bones of VOLTAIRE and ROUSSEAU were brought here to initiate the Panth)on on 11 Jul 1791 and 11 Oct 1794, respectively. However, little of them may be here as the tombs were opened by fanatics in 1814. Voltaire's heart (cf Ferney, outside Geneva, Switzerland in Section 10), brain, one foot and two teeth were taken as relics at various times. [Ayer. Culbertson & Randall (3), pp. 9397.] [Dave Dutton; Horrors ; Futura, London, 1989, pp. 4041] says that in 1814 Voltaire's corpse was taken to a refuse dump and buried in quicklime. However, their presence has survived while many of the revolutionary heroes placed here were soon displaced Mirabeau lasted less that two years and Marat lasted about five months and some were replaced before they even got here! BERTHOLET, DE BOUGAINVILLE (the navigator/explorer, though [Hare(2), p.488] says the tomb of De Bougainville is in Montmartre Cemetery, but he was in the cemetery of St. Pierre, on the top of Montmartre, just west of Sacr) Coeur (only open on 1 Nov) and his heart remains there), L.N.M.CARNOT, M. F. S. CARNOT, CONDORCET, LAGRANGE, LANGEVIN, MONGE, PAINLEV(, PERRIN, Braille, Dumas (brought in 2002), Hugo, Malraux, Marat, Mirabeau, Zola are all here. DESCARTES (qv in Section 7A2) was brought to Ste. Genevi/ve in 1665, but was moved during the Revolution [Eves (4), p. 15; Scott, p. 6]. There is a statue of Voltaire by Houdon in front of his tomb in the crypt [Hare(2), p.361; DBS]. On the main floor of the Panth)on, there are some commemorative inscriptions on the pillars, including one to BERGSON. [Pierre Chevallier & Daniel Rabreau; Le Panth)on ; English translation by Kathleen Wilson Chevalier [sic]; Caisse nationale des Monuments et des Sites, 1977. DBS. MGG .] FOUCAULT (qv in Section 7A2) set up his pendulum here in Mar 1851 at the urging of President Louis Napoleon ([ MGG ] says 1849). (The choice of the Panth)on was undoubtedly primarily based on its height, but it was also the most conspicuous symbol of the struggle between the Church and reason/revolution/anticlericism in Paris. At the time it was a secular temple devoted to the great men of France, most of whom were distinctly anticlerical. Many of the contemporary reports referred to Galileo and attacked the church.) He used a 67 m wire and a 28 kg ball. He was assisted by the engineer Gustave Froment, who made the ball. The wire broke on the first trial, striking terror into Foucault and Froment! They designed a kind of parachute to prevent such accidents. The period was about 16 sec. A 6 m diameter circular table, marked in quarters of a degree, was set out on the floor, inside a larger railing. After one period, the ball could be seen to have moved about 2.5 mm on this scale. Foucault placed little ridges of sand on the table to record the path of the ball. [C. L. Stong; The Amateur Scientist ; Simon & Schuster, 1960, pp. 290301] says the lines moved 11o18' per hour, corresponding to 2.6 mm per period. He also gives an intuitive explanation that the movement is 15o per hour multiplied by the sine of the latitude. The latitude of Paris is 48o51', corresponding to 11.29o = 11o17.69' per hour. There are contemporary pictures in [Foiret et al., p. 16] and in [Deligeorges]. The demonstration first took place before a fashionable audience on 26 or 31 Mar 1851 some of the ladies fainted with excitement and other spectators said they could feel the earth move beneath them! By an ironic twist of fate, Napoleon made a coup d')tat in Dec 1851, forming the Second Empire, which restored the Panth)on to the church and Foucault's pendulum was promptly stopped and removed. Foucault then designed an improved support and drive mechanism for the Exposition Universelle of 1855. In 1902, after the laicisation of the Panth)on, Camille Flammarion and Alphonse Berget set up the demonstration again. They wanted to use the original ball, but the Mus)e would not permit it, so they used a 20kg ball that had been used in the Cathedral of Reims in 1851. They were able to use the original railing. Their wire was a length of piano wire, donated by the piano makers Pleyel, but they discovered it was 60 cm short and they had to raise their table. By Jul, they were able to test it and they had a grand opening on 22 Oct with over 2000 persons attending. The ball was held at the end of its swing by a silk cord which the Minister of Public Instruction burned with a candle to provide a smooth launch. In 1995, the demonstration was set up again in the Panth)on, by Jacques Foiret, engineer of the Conservatoire National des Arts et M)tiers, for a short exhibit to launch a national science festival on 5 Oct 1995, but it has been so popular that it was still present in Jan 1998. There is a pleasant video presentation showing the installation of the pendulum and some of the history, but one cannot get up to the railing. Foucault's original 28kg lead and brass ball of 1851 was used initially in 1995, but in 1996 it was replaced by a 47 kg ball similar to that used by Flammarion in 1902, though that weighed only 20 kg. The original railing was used again. Foiret devised a new safety mechanism. The period is 16.5 sec and the pendulum advances 272o per day or 3.11666...' per period, which corresponds to 2.7198... mm per period on the 6 m circular scale. [Deligeorges, p. 16] notes that some 10% of French people still think the sun goes around the earth! [Deligeorges. Foiret.] The south side of the PLACE DE LA CONCORDE, 8e, has a fountain with groups of statuary representing Marine Navigation and Inland Navigation. Place du Parvis see Notre Dame, above. House numbering was first used in 1463 on the PONT NOTREDAME, 4e. However [Okey, pp. 155156] indicates that this bridge was replaced after its collapse in 1499 and seems to imply that it was the new bridge that had numbering. [A. Brown, p. 35] gives 1463. The RUE DU CHERCHEMIDI, 6e, near St. Sulpice, commemorates a sundial which had two persons looking for noon when it was 2:00pm. No. 19 has a plaque representing this. [Hare(2), p. 432.] In the church of SAN SULPICE, 6e, there is a meridian line in the pavement of the south transept, engraved by LEMONNIER in 1743. Against the wall of the left transept is 'a curious Gnomon Astronomicus'. [Hare(2), pp.421422.] The French SENATE is comprised of distinguished citizens, appointed for life. De BOUGAINVILLE, LAGRANGE, LAPLACE, MONGE were Senators. CAUCHY's father was Secretary of the Senate, which was then housed in the Luxembourg Palace, 6e. The SORBONNE, 7 Rue des (coles (or Place de la Sorbonne), 5e, was founded as a theological college by Robert de Sorbonne (or Sorbon or Cerbon or Rathelois) (12011274), chaplain to St. Louis (= Louis IX), in 1253 the foundation is depicted in the murals on the first floor balcony over the lobby of the Grande Amphitheatre and Louis's Charter is on display in the National Archives (in the H=tel de Soubise, 60 Rue des FrancsBourgeois). However, the funding came from the queen's physician, Robert de Douai, who deserves to be remembered. At the time, there were already about a dozen colleges in Paris, but these seem to have vanished and the Sorbonne is considered the oldest part of the University. It originally had 16 students and was located in a house near the Roman baths, but it moved several times as it expanded. By the end of the 14C, the university had some 40 colleges; by the end of the 15C, there were about 50 and John Evelyn records 65 colleges in the late 17C. [Okey, pp. 9697.] In the late 17C, Richelieu rebuilt the college and church of the Sorbonne his tomb monument is in the church which is the only part surviving from his work [Okey, pp. 214 & 329]. In the church is a picture showing Robert Sorbonne presenting pupils to St. Louis [Hare(2), p. 370]. [Hare(2), p.369] says the quadrangle by the church is 'remarkable for its curious sundials'. After a brief closure by Napoleon, the University was reorganized in 1808 and the faculties of literature, science and theology were located here [Pengelley & Pengelley, p.115]. References to the University of Paris generally refer to the Sorbonne until the reorganization of the 1970s. The main building dates from 1889. The Rue des (coles site is now home to the Universities of Paris-III and ParisIV. The Grande Amphitheatre is where France and the world honoured PASTEUR at a great meeting on 27 Dec 1892 to celebrate his seventieth birthday. It contains murals representing science, medicine, etc. and statues of Sorbonne, Descartes, Lavoisier, Pascal, etc. [Pengelley & Pengelley, p.115.] In 1458, the Master of the Mint was sent to Mainz to learn about printing, but nothing came of it. In 1463, Fust and Sch?ffer brought some printed books to Paris for sale, but they were confiscated at the instigation of the scribes and booksellers the king paid a compensation of 2500 crowns in 1474. In 1479, two doctors of the Sorbonne, Guillaume Fichet and Jean de la Puin, invited Ulmer Gering and two other Swiss printers from Constance to establish a press in the Sorbonne. ([ MGG ] says this press was established by Louis XI in 1469.) By 1473, Peter Kayser, John Stohl and Ulmer Gering were printing in the Rue St. Jacques, at the sign of the Soleil d'Or, which sign was long a token of fine printing. Roman type was soon superseded by Gothic about 1480, but Roman type was reintroduced about 1500. At Gering's death, there were 40 presses in Paris, but these were reduced to 24 to insure sufficient profitability that printers would not be tempted to print prohibited or shoddy books. In 1556, an order, supposedly at the instigation of Diane de Poitiers, required a vellum copy of every book published to be deposited in the Royal Library this seems to be the first such order but cf Biblioth/que Nationale. [Okey, pp.148-150.] MERSENNE was a student. CAUCHY (17891857) was Assistant Professor of Mechanics in 1823-1830 and Professor of Mathematical Astronomy from 1848. BONNET taught here. LIBRI was professor of probability from 1831. CHASLES (17931880) was Professor of Higher Geometry from 1846. LIOUVILLE was Professor in 1857-1873. Charles HERMITE (1822-1901) was Professor, c1870-c1897. DARBOUX succeeded CHASLES as Professor of Higher Geometry. PAINLEV( was a Professor here. Marie Sklodovska (CURIE) entered in 1891 and came in first in physics in 1893 and second in mathematics in 1894. Pierre Curie became Professor of Physics at the Sorbonne, but was killed by a cart in 1906 and Marie was appointed to succeed him their first woman professor. She gave the world's first course on radioactivity here. [Wymer, chap. 6.] Paul APPELL (18551930) was dean of the Faculty of Sciences, c1904. GOURSAT taught here from 1885. Charles Emile PICARD (18561941) was professor from 1886. TANNERY was professor from 1903. (lie CARTAN (18691951) came to teach in 1909 and was named professor in 1912 until his retirement in 1940. Prince LouisVictor de BROGLIE was here when he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1929 for his discovery that matter had wave properties. FR(CHET (18781973) was professor in 19411949. Gaston (Maurice) JULIA (18931978) was a professor. Besides the murals on the first floor, there are other monuments, including statues of Archimedes and of Chemistry, etc. [Cronin, pp. 9091]. I have recently noted a frieze of busts on the side facing Rue St. Jacques, but did not have time to record the names. The TOUR DE L'HOROLOGE is the NE corner of the Conciergerie, on the Quai de l'Horologe, 1er, by the Pont au Change. It is asserted to contain the oldest public clock in the world, dating from 1370 [Cronin, p. 39; MGG ], though perhaps a dozen other clocks lay claim to 14C origins and I have not seen Paris mentioned in discussions of early clocks. [Don Lemon; Everybody's Scrap Book of Curious Facts ; Saxon, London, 1890, p.38] says the first clock resembling a modern clock was made by Henry Vick for Charles V of France in 1370, apparently referring to this clock. Legend says that Charles was unhappy with the IV for four and said it ought to be IIII and this has been followed ever since. [Hare (2), p. 266267] says the tower is restored and 'partially old' and that the clock "commemorates the oldest clock in Paris, constructed by the German Henri Vic, and erected by Charles V." This would have been 1370, but it seems that nothing of the original clock remains. The leaflet for the Conciergerie says the tower was built by John the Good in the 14C and that the clock was replaced by the present clock in 1585. [Okey, p. 312] says the clock was renewed in 1588 and that the bell was cast in 1371 and was used to signal the St. Bartholomew massacre at 2:00 on 24 Aug 1572. [Hare (2), pp. 103 & 266267] says the bell of S. Germain l'Auxerrois gave the first signal for the Right Bank and the Tour de l'Horologe gave the signal for the Left Bank a little later. Hare adds that the tower is modern. The UNIVERSITY of Paris began about 1109 when WILLIAM OF CHAMPEAUX began lecturing on logic [Ball (5), p. 222]. See also Ab)lard in Section 7A2, which dates it to 1208. [ MGG France ] dates it to 1215. [Pengelley & Pengelley, p.114] say it was established by Innocent III in the 13C. Ab)lard's teaching drew away so many of William's students that he retired in c1113, became a monk and founded the Abbey of St. Victor, in the area of Rue du Cardinal Lemoine, SW of Rue Monge [Hare(2), p. 347]. Johannes SACROBOSCO (= John of Holywood or Halifax) (c12131256) came here in 1221 and was professor of mathematics until his death. The Sorbonne, cf above, was established in 1253. At the time, there were already about a dozen colleges in Paris, but these seem to have vanished and the Sorbonne is considered the oldest part of the University. Any master could start his own college once he had permission from the Bishop's Chancellor. By the end of the 14C, there were some 40 colleges; by the end of the 15C, there were about 50 and John Evelyn records 65 colleges in the late 17C. [Okey, pp. 9697.] In 1349, there were 502 professors; in 1403, there were 909 [Okey, p. 105]. However, it is not clear when the multiplicity of colleges really came together as a university [Okey, p. 98] says the word already occurs in statutes of 1215. [Okey, pp. 9899] says the four main faculties were formed in the early 12C and the students and staff had formed themselves into four national groupings: French, Picards, Normans and English by this time. By 1245, these groups were meeting to elect a Rector, who superseded the Chancellor as head of the University and eventually became a kind of sovereign over the Left Bank which had 10,000 students. As at Oxford and Cambridge, the privileges of students led to many conflicts, often bloody and sometimes lethal. As part of the expulsion of the Jews from Spain, four camelloads of manuscripts were brought to Paris in the 13C, containing the works of and commentaries on ARISTOTLE, translated from Greek to Arabic to Latin. The study of Aristotle was initially prohibited but Aquinas (c12251274) managed to reconcile Aristotle and the Church. [Okey, p. 103.] In the 13C, Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus and Roger Bacon taught at Paris [Okey, p. 104]. [Ball (5), p. 227] claims that the first student to fail out of a university was a Paul Nicolas who was refused his degree in Paris in 1426, despite his taking legal action. Petrus [Peter] RAMUS (15151572) was a student and presented a brilliant thesis that all of Aristotle was wrong! He later founded the chair of mathematics and wrote a popular book on arithmetic. His Dialectica was a logic text which was very antiAristotle and much simpler, rapidly displacing Aristotelian treatises in many universities, e.g. at Cambridge by 1580 and at Dublin, until the rise of Bacon and Descartes in the late 17C / early 18C [McDowell & Webb, p. 7]. John DEE lectured here on Euclid, in English, in 1550 [Ball (5), p. 19]. DE MOIVRE was a student of physics in the 1680s. The University resisted the Reformation and generally sank into scholasticism in the 1516C. In the 1718C, the number of colleges reduced. When the Jesuits were expelled in 1763, the University took over the Lyc)e Louis le Grand and made it the seat of the University and the main college, suppressing 26 small colleges and leaving only ten. [Okey, pp. 105106. Hare (2) p. 365.] (lie CARTAN (18691951) was professor in 19121941 (or 1940). Individuals were often associated with several of the higher educational institutions at the same time. The 1970s reorganization has split the University into 13 independent units cf Sorbonne above and five of these, along with five technical universities, are in the suburbs. The Universit) Paris V is named Ren) DESCARTES and is on Blvd. St. Germain by the Odeon Metro stop [ MGG ].  7-A-2. INDIVIDUALS.  See also: Arcueil, Fresnes, PortRoyaldesChamps, in Section 7B. ABEL lived at 41 Rue St. Marguerite, Faubourg St. Germain, in JulyDecember 1826 [Ore, pp. 136, 143 & 156]. (I can't find this on my map.) Peter (= Pierre) AB(LARD (or Abelard) (10791142) was a distinguished medieval logician and teacher. He came to Paris as a student at the school of Notre Dame and soon was engaged in a major controversy about whether abstractions could be understood without knowledge of any specific cases e.g. can one understand the concept of queenliness without ever knowing about queens? Despite its apparent silliness, the question has profound theological implications consider replacing 'queen' by 'god' in the previous example. Further, Ab)lard was attracting away the pupils of William of Champeaux. Consequently Ab)lard was dismissed. After teaching at nearby Melun for a while, he set up his own school at Mt. Ste. Genevi/ve, near the present Pantheon, on the Left Bank. A few schools had already been established in the area, but many more followed Ab)lard and it was the natural area for the University to be established in 1208. His illfated affair with H)lo5se produced a son who was named Astrolabe!! At that time, he lived in her family house at 10 Rue Chanoinesse, north of Notre Dame. They lived at nearby 9 Rue des Chantres. [Okey, p. 305.] [Hare(2), p. 314] says H)lo5se lived in a house at the corner of the Rue des Chantres and Quai aux Fleurs, where there was a commemorative plaque. In the Sorbonne, the first floor murals include Ab)lard teaching. The remains of Ab)lard and H)lo5se were transferred to P/re Lachaise cemetery in 1817, where the graves are a shrine for unhappy lovers. [Cronin, pp.8284 & 90. Okey, pp. 9093.] ALBERTUS MAGNUS (1193 (or 1206) 1280) taught at the Dominican convent on the site of 14 Rue Soufflot, near the Panth)on, in 12451248 [Cronin, p. 103; Okey, p. 104; Holmyard, pp. 111114]. Jean-le-Rond D'ALEMBERT (1717-1783) was abandoned by his parents on the steps of Saint Jean-le-Rond, which was the baptistery of NotreDame, qv in Section 7A1. Foster parents were found and he was christened with the name of the saint. [Eves, vol. II, pp. 32-33. Okey, p. 297.] When he became famous, his mother attempted to reclaim him, but he rejected her. Andr) Marie AMP.RE (17751836) was professor of mathematics at the (cole Polytechnique from 1809. In 1820 he heard of Oersted's observation that a magnetic needle is influenced by an electric current and developed an explanation which he presented the next week to the Acad)mie des Sciences. [Moore & Dahl, p. 7.] THOMAS AQUINAS (c12251274) taught at the University [Okey, p. 104]. Fran'ois ARAGO (17861853) was a student at the (cole Polytechnique from 1803. He became Laplace's assistant at the Observatory in 1806, rising to become Director. He and Biot extended the Delambre and M)chain meridian measurement from Barcelona to the island of Formentera (cf under Dunkirk in Section 7B and under Barcelona, Spain, in Section 10). Secretary of the Acad)mie des Sciences from 1830. Buried in P/re Lachaise. There is a bust in the Louvre. Cf Observatory in Section 7A1 for the commemorative medallions along the Paris meridian. Jean Robert ARGAND (17681822) was a Swiss working as a bookkeeper in Paris when he published his Essai sur une mani/re de r)presenter les quantities imaginaire dans le construction g)ometrique , introducing the Argand diagram for complexes. His book did not even have his name on the title page and was almost ignored, but he sent a copy to Legendre who mentioned it in a letter to Fran'ois Joseph Fran'ais, whose brother JacquesFr)d)ric Fran'ais found it after Fran'ois's death. The brother was a professor (see under Metz in Section 7B), recognised its interest and published an article in Gergonne's Annales des Math)matiques in 1813, leading to the discovery of Argand and widespread discussion and adoption of the idea. During 12341250, Roger BACON (1214?1294 (or 1292)) studied here under Petrus Peregrinus (one of the first writers on the magnet) and the taught here. He returned to Paris c1270 and was in prison for heresy in Paris during 12771291 when he composed his major works. Cf in Section 5B for details of his work. [Okey, p. 104. Holmyard, pp.115119.] Jean Sylvain BAILLY (17361793) was born in Paris. His father was in charge of the King's pictures, so they lived in the Louvre [Arago, pp. 94 & 101]. About 1760, he set up an observatory there, in one of the windows of the upper story of the south gallery [Arago, p. 101]. He was a noted astronomer, historian of astronomy and writer, being a member of all three Academies. In about 1773, he removed to Chaillot on the outskirts of Paris where Franklin visited him in 1777. He later was a major figure in the Revolution, first President of the National Assembly in 1789 (hence clearly depicted in one of David's paintings) and Mayor of Paris in 17891791. But the times passed him by and he was arrested while staying with the Laplaces in M)lun in 1793. He was sent to Paris, imprisoned in various places and summoned as a witness in the trial of Marie Antoinette. He was condemned, imprisoned in the Conciergerie and guillotined by the Jacobins in the moat on the south (river) side of the Champs de Mars in 1793. [Arago. Schmidt.] There is a bust of him in the Mus)e Municipale in the H=tel Carnavalet [Hare (2), pp. 175176] and a picture in the Conciergerie. The father of Antoine Henri BECQUEREL (18521908) was Professor of Physics at the Mus)e National d'Histoire Naturelle in the Jardin des Plantes and so our man was actually born in the grounds. He obtained an engineering degree in 1877 and held various posts in the civil service and academia, including the (cole Polytechnique and the Mus)e National d'Histoire Naturelle. His father had formed a collection of phosphorescent minerals and on 1 March 1896, he observed that uranium nitrate could expose a covered photographic plate in his laboratory at the Mus)e (plaque in rue Cuvier). He pointed the Curies in the direction of investigating the phenomenon. They shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics. He died in Brittany. Henri BERGSON taught philosophy at the Coll/ge de France c1900. Nobel Prize in Literature, 1927. Pierre Eug/ne Marcellin BERTHOLET (18271907). PierreOssian BONNET (18191892), of the GaussBonnet theorem, taught at the (cole Polytechnique, (cole Normale and the Sorbonne. (mile BOREL (18711956) came to Paris as a student of the Coll/ge SainteBarbe and the Lyc)e LouisleGrand. In 1889, he was first on the admissions list of both the (cole Normale and the (cole Polytechnique, and entered the former because he had made friends with Darboux's son. He completed his doctorate in 1894 and spent 18931897 at Lille. He was called back to the (cole in 1897 and remained there for the rest of his life. He was also made Professor of the Theory of Functions of the University of Paris (Sorbonne) in 1909. He lived in Boulevard Arago. He was Deputy Director of the (cole in charge of science from 1910 to 1920 and lived in the (cole. In 1920, he resigned and was made Honorary Director and also translated his University chair to that of Theory of Probability and Mathematical Physics, once held by POINCAR(. About this time he was living in Rue du Bac. He was a member of PAINLEV('s party and a Deputy in 19241936. He was Minister of the Navy under Painlev) in 1925, initiating a submarine building program leading to ships named Pasteur, Pascal, Henri Poincar), Poncelet, Fresnel, Monge and Archim/de. During this period, he and Jean PERRIN promoted the creation of the Centre National de la Recherch) Scientifique (CNRS, at 15 Quai AnatoleFrance, 7e). Borel also led the foundation of the Institut Henri Poincar) in 1927 and served as Director or Joint Director until his death. [Collingwood]. Roger Joseph BOSCOVICH (17111787), the early atomist, lived and worked at 6 Rue de Seine, 6e, in 17751777 (plaque). BOURBAKI began at 12 noon on 10 Dec 1934 when H. Cartan, Chevalley, Delsarte, Dieudonn), Ren) de Possel and Weil met for lunch at the Caf) Capoulade. This group, with some variations, met regularly at the Caf). The group was not named and officially announced until the following summer, so the earlier group has been called ProtoBourbaki. See also: Nancy and Strasbourg in Section 7B. PierreLouisMarie BOURDON (17791854) was professor at St. Cyr, then at the Lyc)e Charlemagne and then the Coll/ge Henri IV. He was a prolific writer of texts. His (l)mens d'Arithm)tique went through 21 editions and his (l)mens d'Alg/bre of 1817 went through a number of editions and was translated both in England and in America, where it was popular for its clarity. Edward BRANLY (1844-1940), inventor of the Branly decoherer used in early radio, was a parishioner of St-Jacques-du-Haut-Pas, 252 Rue St. Jacques, 5e, where there is a commemorative plaque. He is buried in P/re Lachaise. Guillaume BUD(, first director of the Coll/ge Royale in 1530, is buried in St. Nicolas des Champs (252 bis Rue St. Martin, 3e) [Hare(2), pp 135136]. AdrienQuentin BU(E (17481826), one of those who developed complex numbers in the early 19C, fled the Revolution to England, but returned in 1813 and became an Honorary Canon of Notre Dame. George Louis Leclerc BUFFON (1707-1788), the needle-dropper, was very interested in mathematics before going into natural history he translated Newton's The Method of Fluxions and Infinite Series as La Methode des Fluxions, et des Suites Infinies in 1740. He became Superintendent of the Jardin des Plantes, 5e, in 1739 and laid it out from 1739. He transformed the gardens into one of the leading natural history research establishments in the world. He is commemorated by a statue, an Allee and a Rue in or near the Jardin. His house is preserved in the Jardin and has a plaque recording his death (here?). J. BURIDAN (13001361), the proposer of the idea of Buridan's Ass, lived in Paris about 1200. Legend says that Queen Jeanne de Burgogne had him tied in a sack and thrown from the Tour de Nesle into the Seine. Apparently this was a common whim of hers and Buridan's disciples had placed a barge of straw underneath to catch him. [Okey, p. 68.] He lived in the Rue St. Julien le Pauvre, 5e [Okey, pp. 313314]. Nicholas L)onard Sadi CARNOT (17961832) was the engineer and thermodynamicist, inventor of the Carnot cycle, etc. He is not to be confused with (his father?) Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot (17531823), military engineer, a major figure in the Revolution and an important writer on mathematics, particularly 'the geometry of position', nor with the latter's grandson, (Marie Fran'ois) Sadi Carnot (18371894), engineer and President of France from 1887. There is a statue of Jacques CARTIER, the explorer, at the corner of Ave. Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Cours la Reine, 8e, just N of Pont des Invalides. Four CASSINIs were successively directors of the Paris Observatory (qv in Section 7A1) from its founding in 1672 till the Revolution. The first Cassini, Giovanni Domenico (= Jean Dominique) (1625-1712) came to Paris in 1669 and became a French citizen in 1673. In 1671-1673, he found the second and third moons of Saturn (Rhea and Japetus). (Huygens found the first of the moons in 1655.) In 1672, Cassini and Richer made the first reasonable measurement of the sun's distance cf under Observatory in Section 7A1. In 1675, Cassini discovered the 'division of Cassini' in the rings of Saturn. In 1684, he found two more moons of Saturn (Tethys and Dione). [Miniati et al., pp. 6970.] It was this Cassini who described the 'ovals of Cassini' and discovered the libration of the moon, the polar caps of Mars and the discrepancy in the eclipses of the moons of Jupiter later shown to be due to the finite speed of light. Cassini also worked at the Chteau of St-Germain-en-Laye, in the western suburbs of Paris. He is buried in the nearby St-Jacques-du-Haut-Pas, 252 Rue St. Jacques, 5e modern plaque in the floor by the altar. His assistant Olaus ROEMER (16441710) determined the speed of light from these results, getting within 30% of the correct result. In 1783, CASSINI DE THURY (17141784) was Director and proposed to George III the triangulation of southeast England so that connection with the completed French triangulation to Calais would resolve the disputed relative positions of the Greenwich and Paris Observatories. This led to the triangulations carried out by Roy (cf in Section3) and Count Jacques (or Jean??) Dominique CASSINI (1748-1845, son of the above) and the founding of the Ordnance Survey. Rue Cassini is just north of the Observatory. AugustinLouis CAUCHY (17891857) was born in Paris. His father was Secretary of the Senate, so the family lived in the Luxembourg Palace during Cauchy's teens. He attended the (cole Polytechnique in 18051807 and the (cole des Ponts et Chauss)es in 18071809. He then worked on the Canal Saint Martin in La Villette in the NE of Paris, then on the harbour at Cherbourg. Professor at the (cole Polytechnique in 18151830, Assistant Professor of Mechanics at the Sorbonne in 1823-1830 and a Professor at the Coll/ge de France to 1830. Feeling bound by his allegiance to the Bourbons, he followed them into exile in 1830, not returning until 1838. Professor of Mathematical Astronomy at the Sorbonne from 1848. FA  DI BRUNO was one of Cauchy's last pupils in 18491851. Cauchy died at his country house in the suburb of Sceaux. [Smithies. Giacardi & Roero, pp.132134.] Michel CHASLES (17931880) taught geodesy, astronomy and applied mathematics at the (cole Polytechnique in 18411851. He was appointed to a specially created chair in Higher Geometry at the Facult) de Sciences of the Sorbonne in 1847. He founded the Soci)t) Math)matique de France in 1872. He is buried in P/re Lachaise Cemetery. The du CHTELETs lived at the H=tel Lambert, 27-31 Quai d'Anjou, 2le St. Louis, 4e, [Crosland, vol. 3, p.72]. [Eastman, p. 107, with photo] says it is 13 Quai d'Anjou, 2le StLouis and that the Marquis du Chtelet bought it for his wife Gabrielle (Emilie le Tonnelier de Breteuil, Marquise du Chtelet) and VOLTAIRE to live in and that they lived there intermittently from 1733 to 1748. [Cronin, p.191] says it is 2 Rue St. Louis en l'2le. Ernst Florens Friedrich CHLADNI (17561827) was Professor of Physics in Breslau (qv in Section 8) when he developed Chladni figures c1800. He came to Paris in 1808 to present his work at the Institut and Laplace had him give a two hour demonstration to Napoleon, who gave him 6000 francs. Alexis Claude CLAIRAUT (17131765), was born, lived and died in Paris. He was a prodigy, being elected to the Acad)mie des Sciences at the age of 18. He computed the return date of Halley's comet. Zerah COLBURN, the American calculating boy, was admitted to the Lyc)e Henri IV, but could not afford the expenses. Jean Antoine Nicolas de Caritat, Marquis de CONDORCET (17431794) hid from the Convention at 15 Rue Servandoni, 6e, near St. Sulpice, but was eventually discovered and executed [Cronin, p. 179180]. However, in the Panth)on, it says he was found dead in the prison of BourgEgalit) (= BourglaReine), a bit south of Paris. Gaspard Gustave de CORIOLIS was a professor at the (cole Polytechnique. In 1835, he analysed the effect named for him. Marie Sklodovska (CURIE) (18671934) entered the Sorbonne in 1891 and came in first in physics in 1893 and second in mathematics in 1894. She first lived with her sister and brotherinlaw at 92 Avenue JeanJaur/s, La Villette, 19e. Married Pierre Curie (18591906), a teacher at the (cole de Physique et Chimie, 42 Rue Lhomond, on 26 Jul 1895. Pierre and his brother had discovered piezoelectricity c1880. In 18951900, they lived at 24 Rue de la Glaci/re, 13e, just south of the university area, then further south at 108 Boulevard Kellermann, 13e, (plaque) until 1906. Discovered the intense radioactivity in pitchblende in 1898 and they soon discovered the presence of two new elements: polonium and radium. She suggested the term 'radioactivity'. They then processed several tons of material in a vanished shed in the (cole Sup)rieure de Physique et de Chimie Industrielles de la Ville de Paris [photo in Wymer, p.6:22]. [ MGG France ] says the outline of the shed is shown in the paving pattern of the courtyard of the School at 10 Rue Vauquelin, 5e. From 1900 to 1914, they worked at the Curie Laboratory, 12 Rue Cuvier, 5e, probably now covered by part of the Universities Paris VI & VII. She received her doctorate and they received the Nobel Prize in Physics, shared with Becquerel, in 1903. Pierre became Professor of Physics at the Sorbonne, but was killed by a cart in the Rue Dauphine near the Pont Neuf in 1906 and Marie was appointed to succeed him their first woman professor. She gave the world's first course on radioactivity. Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1911. Shortly after Pierre's death, she moved to a house at 6 Rue du Chemin, in the southern suburb of Sceaux, Pierre's native village, and stayed there until 1912. In 1912, she moved to 36 Quai de B)thune, 2le StLouis, 4e, and lived there until her death. Both Curies were buried at Sceaux, but in 1995 they were translated to the Panth)on she being the first woman to be so honoured. [Wymer, chap. 6. DBS.] The Institut Curie was built for her in 1914 at 26 Rue d'Ulm, 5e, (apparently now entered from 11 Rue PierreetMarieCurie), near the (cole Normale Sup)rieure. (My 1986 MGG shows the Institut de Radium also on the Rue d'Ulm, but my 1991 map shows the site as part of the (cole Nationale Sup)rieure de Chimie.) The Curies had two daughters. The elder, Ir/ne (18971956), assisted her mother and married Fr)d)ric Joliot (19001958), another of her mother's assistants, in 1926, and they adopted the name JoliotCurie. Ir/ne succeeded her mother at the Sorbonne. They created the first artificial isotope in 1934 and received the Nobel Prize in chemistry for 1935. After the fall of France, they managed to smuggle heavy water out of the country. Both Marie and Ir/ne died of leukaemia, probably caused by overexposure to radiation. (Jean)Gaston DARBOUX (18421917) was at the (cole Normale and the Sorbonne. He was perpetual Secretary of the Acad)mie des Sciences in the early 20C. See under the Observatory in Section 7A1 for his connection with the Dreyfus case. Abraham DE MOIVRE was a student of physics at the University, Coll/ge d'Harcourt, in the 1680s. After the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, he went into seclusion in the priory of St. Martin (possibly that which became the Conservatoire National des Arts et M)tiers ??) and then emigrated to England, having no contact with France until he was elected a Foreign Associate of the Academy of Sciences just before his death. Ren) DESCARTES (1596 (or 1598) 1650) lived at 14 Rue Rollin, 5e, (demolished) in 1613-1617 [Alexanderson; Crosland, vol. 3, p. 74] and in 1644 and 16471648 [Eastman, p. 86]. [Hare(2), p. 495] says he lived in Rue Pourtales, formerly Rue Neuve S. Etienne, to the south of Boulevard Bonne Nouvelle, 2e, but I cannot locate either rue on my map. After his death in Stockholm, his body was returned to Paris, arriving on 25 Jun 1665 [Hare(2), p. 359], though the coffin had been looted by his followers for relics in Stockholm. Supposedly, the coffin was shipped overland from Copenhagen to avoid piracy by English admirers! The remains were in Ste. Genevi/ve, then in Lenoir's Museum of French Monuments, then finally moved to St-GermaindesPr)s in 1819. His previous presence in Ste. Genevi/ve, which became the Panth)on (Section 7-A1), led me to believe he was there. [Culbertson & Randall (3), pp. 161162. Scott, p. 6.] His headstone (or gravestone) is in St-Germain-des-Pr)s, in the second chapel on the right of the apse. [D. E. Smith (2)] gives the inscription. There is a portrait of him by Franz Hals in the Louvre [Alexanderson]. Stephen Jay Gould [S. J. Gould] says the (purported) skull of Descartes is in the Mus)e de l'Homme, apparently on display [Culbertson & Randall (3), p.162; Eastman, p. 86]. The Universit) Paris V is named Ren) Descartes and is on Blvd. St. Germain by the Odeon Metro stop [ MGG ]. Denis DIDEROT (1713-1784) lived at 3 Rue de l'Estrapade, 5e. He died at 39 Rue Richelieu, 1er, and is buried in St. Roch, 296 Rue St. Honor), 1er. [Crosland, vol. 3, pp. 76 & 97. MGG .] Bust by Houdon in the Louvre. There is no monument in St. Roch and they do not know where he lies. Johannes DUNS SCOTUS (c12651308) taught at the Franciscan school of theology in Paris [Okey, pp.77-78 & 104]. [Hare(2), pp. 388390] identifies this as the Convent of the Cordeliers, on the south side of Rue de l'(cole de M)dicine, 6e, where Universit) Paris VI (Cordeliers) is now. Hare says that remains of the Convent contain the surgical Mus)e Dupuytren, but this is now longer listed in Paris guide books. The statue of the Virgin on the central pier of the west porch of the lower chapel at the SainteChapelle is said to have bowed to Scotus in 1304 in recognition of his promotion of the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception! [Okey, p. 306]. However, he is best remembered as the eponym of 'dunce' in recognition of the sterile scholasticism of his followers. Gustav EIFFEL included a flat for himself at the top of the Eiffel Tower, 7e, and retired there at age 62 to conduct aerodynamic experiments [Cronin, p. 267]. ERASMUS studied at the College de Pouillerye in the 15C. He was offered the directorship of the Royal College of France in 1517, but declined. [Okey, pp. 98 & 163.] Portrait by Holbein in the Louvre. Francesco FA  DI BRUNO (18251888) came to Paris in 18491851 and became one of Cauchy's last pupils. In 1855157, he returned to pursue his doctorate. [Giacardi & Roero, pp. 144146.] Jean FERNEL (1497-1558) was a distinguished physician who wrote three books on mathematics, including one which gives his measurement of the earth's meridian. He recreated and developed the Greek hodometer (described by Heron) into the waywiser. He was buried in Saint Jacques de la Boucherie, of which the Tour Saint Jacques, 4e, is all that remains. [Sarton, pp. 191-194. Gunther (4), p. 57.] Oronce FINE (= Orontius Finaeus) (14941555) became professor at the Coll/ge Royal in 1532 and died in Paris. Bernard Le Bovier de FONTENELLE (16571757) died in Paris. Jean Bernard L)on FOUCAULT (18191868) was born in Paris, but his family moved to Nantes when he was young. After his father's death in 1829, the family returned to Paris and he attended the Coll/ge Stanislas. He started to study medicine, but found he could not stand blood and went into physics. Worked on photography, arc lamps, interference of light (determining the relative speeds of light in air and water and showing the speed varied inversely as the refractive index), telescope mirrors and lenses. In 1843. he collaborated with a doctor to produce an atlas of microscopic anatomy published in 1845 as a supplement to the doctor's Cours de Microscopie [Darius, pp. 12 & 2223]. In 1845, at the request of Arago, Foucault and Fizeau made the first known photograph of the sun showing sunspots [Darius, p. 16] (another source dates this as 1855). POINSOT suggested and Foucault created the gyroscope, which also demonstrates the rotation of the earth an 1851 version is in the Conservatoire National des Arts et M)tiers [Foiret et al., pp. 811 & 27]. Physicist at the Paris Observatory from 1855. He conceived his famous pendulum experiment about 1849. In early Jan 1851, he first set up the experiment in his cellar in Rue d'Assas with a 2m wire and a 5 kg weight and recorded its first success on 8 Jan at 2 in the morning. This was the first 'internal' demonstration that the earth rotated. ARAGO then invited him to set it up at the Observatory where he could get an 11 m wire and this was opened on 3 Feb. Later, Prince Louis Napol)on Bonaparte, President of the Republic (later Napol)on III), invited him to set it up in the Panth)on, qv in Section 7A1, where he used a 67 m wire and a 28 kg ball [contemporary pictures in Foiret et al., p.16, and in Deligeorges]. He was assisted by the engineer Gustave Froment who made the ball. A report states that this demonstration took place before a fashionable audience on 26 Mar 1851 some of the ladies fainted with excitement and other spectators said they could feel the earth move beneath them! He presented his results in three papers read to the Acad)mie des Sciences on 3 Aug and 27 Sep 1851 and published as: 'Demonstration physique du mouvement de rotation de la terre au moyen du pendule', Comptes rendus 32 (1851) 135138; 'Sur une nouvelle d)monstration experimentale du mouvement de la terre', Comptes rendus 35 (1852) 421424; 'Sur les ph)nom/nes d'orientation des corps tournants entrain)s par un axe fixe ! la surface du terre. Nouveaux signes sensibles du mouvement diurne, Comptes rendus 35 (1952) 424427. Foucault then designed an improved support and drive mechanism for the Exposition Universelle of 1855. He is buried in Montmartre Cemetery. In Oct 1995, the demonstration was set up again in the Panth)on for a short exhibit, but has been so popular that it was still present in Jan 1998. [Deligeorges. Foiret.] In 1850, Foucault confirmed Fizeau's 1849 result that light travels faster in air than in glass which was a confirmation of the wave theory of light. Foucault also discovered the eddy currents generated in a conductor when moved through a magnetic field. Jean Baptiste Joseph FOURIER (1766?1830) was a student at the (cole Normale, c1794. He was sentenced to the guillotine by Robespierre in 1794, but Robespierre was overthrown the day before his execution was due [Ben Selinger; Why the Watermelon Won't Ripen in your Armpit and other science conundrums ; Allen & Unwin, Australia, 2000, p. 194]. He was unanimously elected the first Secretary of the Institute of Egypt in 1798. [Archibald (4). Arago, p. 394.] He was Governor of Lower Egypt in 1798-1801 [Eves (6), p. 58] or Commissioner at the Divan of Cairo [Arago, p. 395]. He led one of the expeditions of exploration which examined ancient monuments and he suggested the publication of the great report on Egypt. He was was a professor at the (cole Polytechnique up to 1806. Napol)on made him a baron and during Napol)on's return from Elba in 1815, he made Fourier a count and Prefect of the Rhone, based at Lyons, from 10 Mar to 1 May. In 1815, he was penniless in Paris and giving lessons for his living. The Prefect of Paris found out and made him director of the Bureau de la Statistique of the Pr)fecture of the Seine. He was elected to the Acad)mie in 1816, but this was vetoed by the government, so he was elected again in 1817 and this was permitted. [Arago, pp. 436437.] He was Prefect of the Department of Is/re, whose capital is Grenoble, from 1802 to 1817 (1815??) [Eves(6), p. 58; Math. Intell. 10:2 (1988) 51]. He was Permanent Secretary of the Acad)mie des Sciences in 18221830. In 1827, he suggested that man's activities might have an effect on the climate, but no one took him seriously. Buried in P/re Lachaise. JacquesFr)d)ric FRAN&AIS (17751833) was at the (cole Polytechnique in 17971800. He rose to become General of the Engineers and Professor of the Military Art in Metz. Benjamin FRANKLIN (17061790) was US ambassador to France in 17761785. He lived at the H=tel de Valentinois, which was at 62 Rue Raynouard, 16e, at the corner of Rue Singer. Here he erected the first lightning rod in France(??). He may have had an office at 26 Rue de Penthi/vre, 8e. [Eastman, p. 87. Hare (2), p. 463.] He invented bifocal glasses in 1784. It was his experience of the late nights of Parisian society that led him to propose daylight saving time in 1784. He even estimated the number of candles that would be saved. VOLTA came to visit him and they dined many times. A source says he had a house in Passy. Bust by Houdon in the Louvre. (variste GALOIS (18111832) was born at 54 Avenue G)n)ralLeclerc, 14e, (plaque) [Alexanderson]. But [Solovyov], [Picard] and [Bell, p. 362] say he was born in BourglaReine, some 10 km south of the centre of Paris, making it still 5 km beyond the P)riph)rique and outside Paris. He was a student at the Coll/ge Royal de LouisleGrand (now the Lyc)e LouisleGrand) in 18231830. Failing to enter the (cole Polytechnique, qv in Section 7-A1, in 1830 he entered the Preparatory School or (cole Normale which continued the Coll/ge. He was expelled in Dec 1830 and became a political activist. He spent Aug 1831 to Apr 1832 in Sainte P)lagie prison. The infamous duel with Pescheux d'Herbinville took place near the Glassier pond in the southern suburb of Gentilly. He died in the Cochin Hospital this is now at 27 Rue du Faubourg St. Jacques, 14e, but I don't know how long it has been there. He was buried in a common grave at Montparnasse Cemetery, but no trace of the grave remains. [Solovyov. Picard.] The duel was over Galois's involvement with St)phanieF)licie Poterine du Motel, who was d'Herbinville's fianc)e, but it has been claimed that the affair was a political frameup by government agents in order to eliminate Galois. The [ MGG France ] is unusual among guidebooks in that it refers to many mathematicians and scientists, particularly under Paris. However, it is wise not to depend on such works for technical information it says: "Evariste Galois put forward the theory of sets; his concepts were developed by Cauchy." Pierre GASSENDI (1592-1655) was professor of mathematics (more properly astronomy) at the Coll/ge Royale from 1645. He lived in the H=tel de Montmor, 79 Rue du Temple, 3e. Montmor was treasurer to Louis XIII and Montmor's son invited the scientists of the day to meet here. These meetings led to the founding of the Acad)mie des Sciences, qv in Section 7A1. [ MGG .] Gassendi was professor at Aix from 1617. On 7 Nov 1631, he made the first observation of a planetary transit of the sun when he saw a transit of Mercury. [Scott, p. 202.] It seems likely he was at Aix at this time, but one source says he was in Paris [Owen Gingerich; review of: Eli Maor; June 8, 2004 Venus in Transit ; Princeton Univ. Press, 2000; Times Literary Supplement (11 Aug 2000) 29]. Gassendi was a priest, but he was a firm believer in Copernicus. He revived the atomistic ideas of Lucretius and spent much time proclaiming that Epicurean philosophy was compatible with Catholicism. [Berry, p. 28.] He is buried in St. Nicolas des Champs, 252 bis Rue St. Martin, 3e, [Hare(2), pp 135136]. Joseph Louis GAYLUSSAC (17781850) was a student at the (cole Polytechnique from 1797. On 6 Sep 1804, GayLussac ascended in a balloon at Paris to 23,400 ft and later made several longer ascents, taking samples of the air which proved to have the same composition at all heights. In 1808, he published his "Memoir on the combination of gaseous substances with each other". He also showed that chlorine was an element in 1809 and discovered boron. He taught at the (cole Polytechnique. He is buried in Division 26 of P/re Lachaise [Culbertson & Randall (3), p. 34]. [ MGG-Dordogne Perigord Limousin Quercy .] Sophie GERMAIN died at 13 Rue de Savoie, 6e, in 1831 (plaque) [Alexanderson]. Charles HERMITE (18221901) was a student at the (cole Polytechnique for one year in c1840 but was sent away because his lame leg made him unfit for military service. He was later a lecturer from c1862. He was Professor at the (cole Normale in c1867 and at the Sorbonne, c1870-c1897. He died in Paris. Philippe de la HIRE (16401718), who edited the early proceedings of the Acad)mie des Sciences and reported a method of constructing magic squares which he learned as ambassador to Siam, is buried in St-Jacques-du-Haut-Pas, 252 Rue St. Jacques, 5e modern plaque in the floor by the altar. Guillaume Fran'ois Antoine de L'HOSPITAL, Marquis de SainteMesme (16611704) was born and died in Paris. (The family name is often modernized to L'H=pital, but the older form seems to be the form he used.) His Analyse des Infiniment Petites of 1697 (or 1696?) was the first textbook on calculus, including the rule named for him, but it is now known to have been ghost written by John I Bernoulli. Christiaan HUYGENS (16291695) spent 16641681 in Paris as Director of the Acad)mie Royale des Sciences, with a substantial pension from Colbert and living in the building. He wrote his Horologium Oscillatorium (1673) here and dedicated it to Louis XIV. He developed the spiral balance spring and a watch using it, obtaining a French patent in 1675 (though Hooke had described the idea in 1658 and apparently made some watches using it). Huygens later used this in his 1682 planetarium, now in the Museum Boerhaave, Leiden. Denis Papin, inventor of the pressure cooker, was a student/assistant of his and in 1673 they built a gunpowder engine which was a primitive internal combustion engine. He designed, had built and played a harpsichord with 31 notes to the octave. In 1678, he proposed a wave theory of light though he had started work on this in 1672, he didn't publish until his Trait) de la lumi/re in 1690. Relations between France and The Netherlands deteriorated after 1672 and in 1681 he felt it prudent to return to The Hague (or he went back for his health). Colbert died in 1683 and Huygens had his belongings removed from Paris in 1685. [Museum Boerhaave, pp. 67 & 4547. Van Helden & van Gent, p. 5.] MarieEnnemondCamille JORDAN (18381922) was a student of engineering at the (cole Polytechnique, but studied mathematics on the side. He was professor at the (cole in 18731912 and at the Coll/ge de France. His Cours d'Analyse and Trait) des Substitutions et des (quations Alg)briques were standard works for a generation. He died in Paris. [Biggs, Lloyd & Wilson, pp.217218.] William THOMSON (later Lord KELVIN) see under Thomson, below. LAGRANGE (1736-1813) was briefly housed in an apartment in the Louvre when he came to Paris in 1787. Vagliente writes that he was in the Hotel de la Briffe, Quai des Th)atins, which seems to be a part of the Louvre. Lagrange brought the completed manuscript of the M)canique Analytique and it was published in 1788. In 1788, he was living at 4 Rue Fromanteau (or Froidmanteau), Section du Mus)um. Vagliente states that Lagrange lived at 128 Rue du Faubourg St. Honor/, 8e, quartier du Roule, at the time of his death, but that building was torn down c1955. Perhaps his greatest monument is the metric system. [ MGG France ] says it was adopted in 1795. Joseph Jerome LALANDE (17321807) studied astronomy at the Coll/ge de France and then became Professor of Astronomy there in 1762. Director of the Observatory from 1768 until his death. He also edited Montucla's History of Mathematics . [Schmidt.] Paul LANGEVIN (18721946) was Professor at the Coll/ge de France from 1902. He succeeded Pierre Curie at the (cole de Physique et Chimie in 1904 and was Director of the Coll/ge from 1925. He developed sonar during WW1. LAPLACE (17491827) came to Paris by 1769 and was soon a professor at the (cole Militaire from 1769 to 1776, where he discovered his expansion for a determinant [Whittaker]. Elected to the Acad)mie des Sciences in 1773. He was a major promoter of the metric system. Exposition du Syst/me du Monde appeared in 1796. The first two volumes of his Trait) de M)canique C)leste appeared in 1799. Napoleon made him Minister of the Interior in 1799, but he was suitable for such a post and was replaced after six weeks. Made a Senator. In 1803, he became Chancellor of the Senate, a post of little power but good salary. The following volumes of Trait) de M)canique C)leste appeared in 1802, 1805, 1825. There is a statue of him at the Observatory [Alexanderson]. He was originally buried in P/re Lachaise, but his remains were removed to the family estate near Beaumont in the late 19C. Adrien Marie LEGENDRE (1752-1833) was born in Paris and was professor at the (cole Normale Sup)rieure and the (cole Militaire [Archibald (3), pp. 45-46]. There are 16C tombs of a Roberte Legendre and her husband in the Louvre [Okey, p. 343], but I don't know if there is any connection with the mathematician. Urbain J. J. LEVERRIER (18111877) was at the Paris Observatory when he deduced Neptune in 1845-46. He also noted that the perihelion of Mercury was advancing more rapidly than Newtonian physics could account for, but he proposed in 1845 that this was due to a planet between Mercury and the sun which he called Vulcan. (Win some, lose some!) He later succeeded Arago as Director from 1854 to 1870 and 18731877. There is a statue of him at the Observatory. Guglielmo LIBRI (18031869) came to Paris in 1831 and became professor of probability at the Sorbonne and a member of the Acad)mie. In 1840, he was made secretary of a commission to catalogue manuscripts in French libraries. His Histoire des Sciences Math)matiques en Italie appeared in four volumes in 18381841. His political attitude made enemies and in 1848, he was accused of appropriating manuscripts. He protested innocence, but fled to London. He was tried in absentia and sentenced to ten years imprisonment, but it was never clear whether he was guilty or not. [Giacardi & Roero, p. 139.] On the other hand, [Luca Antoccia et al; Leonardo Art and Science ; Giunti Gruppo Editoriale, Florence, 2000, pp. 94, 102, 104] specifically says Libri stole various sheets, including the entire Codex on the Flight of Birds , from the Leonardo da Vinci codices that Napoleon had brought from Milan and which were in the Institut de France. He took them to England and assembled some of them into codices which he sold to Lord Ashburnham (the socalled Ashburnham codices 2037 and 2038) which the French government bought back in 1891. Libri disbound the Codex on the Flight of Birds and sold five folios in England and the other 13 to an Italian Count whose heirs sold it to a Russian prince who bought one of the missing folios and donated them to the Savoia family in 1883. This was deposited at the Biblioteca Reale and the four other pages were acquired in 19031920. At least one booklet that Libri took has never been relocated. Fran'ois(douardAnatole LUCAS (18421891) was a student at the (cole Normale in 18611864, then an assistant to LeVerrier at the Paris Observatory until c1870. He served in the artillery during the FrancoPrussian War, then taught at schools, including Lyc)e Charlemagne (18761879 & 18901891) and Lyc)e Saint Louis (18791890). It was at the latter that he devised the Tower of Hanoi, by "Professeur N. Claus (de Siam), Mandarin du Coll/ge LiSouStian". [Harkin] states that he lived at 56 Rue Monge, 5e, which [Lucas] identifies as the site where PASCAL died see Pascal, below, but I don't read [Lucas] as stating that he, Lucas, lived there he says about the legend of the Tower of Hanoi: "mais nous pouvons affirmer que le tout a )t) imagin), il y a une dizaine d'ann)es, au no 56 de la Rue Monge, ! Paris, dans la maison habit)e alors par M. Viette, ministre de l'Agriculture, et btie sur l'emplacement de celle oI mourut Pascal, le 19 aoEt 1662." [Harkin] could be read as saying that Lucas gives his address in the Preface to his Th)orie des Nombres , but it is not there in the 1958 reprint. MASCHERONI lived at 20 Rue Monsieur, 7e, (plaque in Italian) [Alexanderson]. There is a 'monstrosity in the form of a tomb to MAUPERTUIS' (1698-1759) in Saint-Roch, 296 Rue St. Honor), 1er, [D. E. Smith (2)], in the second chapel on the right [Hare (2), p. 107]. Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis (16981759) supervised the first accurate measurements of a degree (but cf Paris Observatory in Section 7A1 for an earlier measurement). He first surveyed from Dunkirk to Perpignan to provide the data for the meter (This can't be right, see Dunkirk in Section 7B these measurements were to determine the flattening of the earth.) This line was later extended to Barcelona. He then led an expedition (including Clairaut) to Lapland (see Finland in Section 10), while Pierre Bouguer and CharlesMarie de La Condamine (17011774) went to Peru in 1736, to determine the shape of the earth. Maupertuis's data was enough to confirm Newton's prediction that it was flattened at the poles even before the Peru expedition had returned. Maupertuis also formulated the principle of least action. He was President of the Berlin Academy of Sciences for some time. Nicolaus MERCATOR (c1620-1687), a discoverer of ( dx/(1+x), designed and constructed the fountains at Versailles, outside Paris [Eves, vol. II, p. 4]. Father Marin MERSENNE (1588-1648) studied at the Sorbonne and later lived from 1619 (or 1620) to his death at the Convent of St. Francis of Paula near the Place Royale in Paris [H. de Coste; Life of Marin Mersenne ; given in David, pp. 196-228 see pp. 200-204]. (Other sources call it the Minim Convent de l'Annonciade.) Another source says it was on what is still called Rue des Minimes, near the Palais Royale, and was destroyed in the French Revolution. Gaspard MONGE (1746-1818) was buried in the cemetery of P/re Lachaise. As an active Jacobin, he was acting head of the government on the day Louis XVI was executed [Tattersall]. He was also Minister of the Navy. He was in official disfavour when he died and had been expelled from the Academy in 1816, but his students erected a monument with a bust. In 1989, he was translated to the Panth)on. The square in front of the (cole Polytechnique building was named for him, but has been recently renamed after Langevin and the (cole has removed to the suburbs. There is a Place Monge and a Hotel Monge a bit further down the Rue Monge. [Alexanderson. Brooke.] Claude Louis Marie Henri NAVIER (17851836) was a student and then a teacher at the (cole des Ponts et Chauss)es. Alfred NOBEL (18331896) lived at 5359 Ave. Malakoff, 16e, c1870c1890. It was during this period that he and his brothers developed the Baku oil fields and developed the first oil tankers. [Wilhelm, pp. 1316, with photo on p. 14]. He also lived at SevranLivry, 15km NE of Paris, where his house is in a park with an explosives museum; tel: (33) 1 49 36 51 75 [Glenys Crocker; The Gunpowder Industry ; Shire Album 160, (1986); 2nd ed., 1999, p. 32]. Nicole ORESME (1323?1382) was Bursar of the College of Navarre in the University of Paris in 1348-1356, and then became Master of the College in 13561361. He was the first to write scientific works in French. He is best known for his translations of Aristotle and his writings on economy and money, but he wrote several works on the sphere and seems to be the first to see the need for a Date Line. He was one of the first to draw the graph of an equation. Paul PAINLEV( (1863-1933), the aerodynamicist and politician, is buried in the Panth)on [Archibald]. Studied at the (cole Normale Sup)rieure. Doctorate in 1887. Professor at the Sorbonne. The Dreyfus Case aroused his interest in politics and he served as a Deputy for Paris from 1906. He was one of the first airplane passengers, flying with one of the Wright brothers. He was Minister of Education, then of War, twice Prime Minister (Borel served under him as Minister of the Navy) and Minister of War and then, appropriately, Air Minister in 19301931 and 19321933. There are a square and a place named for him just north of the Sorbonne. Blaise PASCAL (16231662) stayed with the Duc de Roannez at 18 Rue du Cloiture-Saint-Merri, 4e, about 1647. His unsuccessful attempt to persuade the Duc's sister to enter a convent led to a (fortunately) unsuccessful assassination attempt on Pascal. It was on the Pont de Neuilly, to the west of Paris, that he had a narrow escape from being drowned by runaway horses which led to his renunciation of the world [Hare(2), pp. 468469]. He lived at 54 Rue MonsieurlePrince, 6e, in 16541662 (plaque) [Alexanderson has a photo; I have a photo.], then moved to his sister's house at 67 Rue du CardinalLemoine, 5e, where he died. However, [Lucas, p. 183] identifies the site of his death as 56 Rue Monge, 5e. In 1992, I visited both sites they are not different doors of the same building and both are much later than Pascal, probably late 19C. 56 Rue Monge is a hotel (across from a Hotel Monge) and they had never heard that Pascal lived on the site. More recently, I find that [Hare(2), p. 495] says Pascal died in Rue Pourtales, formerly Rue Neuve S. Etienne, to the south of Boulevard Bonne Nouvelle, 2e, but I cannot locate either rue on my map. [Don Lemon; Everybody's Scrap Book of Curious Facts ; Saxon, London, 1890, p. 3334] asserts Pascal invented the omnibus and obtained a privilege to run public carriages in Paris which held eight passengers, but that the idea did not long survive him. However, Lemon dates this and Pascal's death as 1667, which might be a misprint. Pascal's remains are in St-(tienne-du-Mont, Place Ste. Genevi/ve, 5e; they were previously in the nearby Ste. Genevi/ve, demolished in 1807. Pascal's epitaph in St-(tienne-du-Mont is quoted by Smith [D. E. Smith (2); I have a photo; there is a photo in: Bernard Mahieu; L'Eglise Saint(tienne du Mont de Paris ; S. I. D. E. S./(ditions de la Tourelle, Paris, 1985, fig. 17]. It is on the first pillar on the right (south) side after passing through the screen into the chancel. The tomb itself, with a bronze bust, is generally said to be near the Lady Chapel [Alexanderson. Crosland, vol. 3, p. 78.] [Hare(2), pp.354-355] says the inscription is in the third chapel on the right while the tombstone is against the wall of the south aisle of the choir. Hare says this tombstone, with a Latin inscription by Boileau, was at PortRoyaldesChamps and then moved to the village church of MagnylesHameaux before coming here. Hare adds that the coffin of Pascal was brought here from PortRoyal after its ruin, presumably in 1709. [Cronin, p. 103] says Pascal is buried in the Lady Chapel. [Mahieu, op. cit., fig. 26] shows 'Tombeau de Pascal' as being on the pillar to the right of the Lady Chapel. When I visited in 1992 and 2000, I only saw a tablet on the right hand entrance pillar of the Lady Chapel which said he was 'near this pillar' I have a photo. A modern guidebook says the epitaph and this tablet are all that remains and that the epitaph is a replacement of the original. There is a statue in the Tour SaintJacques, 4e, where Pascal repeated the PuydeD=me experiments on atmospheric pressure in 1648 [Hare(2), pp. 232232; MGG ; I have a photo]. (Pascal was a follower of the religious thought developed at PortRoyaldesChamps (qv in Section 7B) which was started by Jean Duvergier de Havranne, Abb) de. St. Cyran ( 1672), who is buried in S. Jacques du Haut Pas, 252 Rue St. Jacques, 5e modern plaque in the floor by the altar. One of the earliest references to a pigeonhole problem has one of the other PortRoyal thinkers explaining it to the Duchesse de Longueville (-1679), a friend of the movement. She initiated the reconstruction of this church, laid the first stone and paid for most of the work. There is a memorial plaque in a side chapel (ask the custodian to let you in) which says her entrails were buried in the chapel. ([Hare] says she is buried in this church, but without a monument.) [Hare(2), pp. 337338. DBS.]) Louis PASTEUR (18221895) was a student of chemistry at the (cole Normale in 18431848 and began the studies of crystals that led to his discovery of stereoisomerism. He received a doctorate in crystallography in 1847. He returned as Director of Scientific Studies in 18571867. [Wymer, p. 2:7, 10, 15.] The (cole has been at 45 Rue d'Ulm, 5e, south of the Panth)on, from 1847. On the right of the courtyard is the building where Pasteur worked and which is now the school's infirmary. The room where he carried out the experiments that disproved spontaneous generation is now a cupboard for children's toys, with a plaque outside it. [Pengelley & Pengelley, pp.119120.] A grateful France built a Institut Pasteur at 25 rue du Docteur Roux (off Boulevard Pasteur), 15e, and Pasteur and his wife lived in it. The living quarters is now the Mus)e Pasteur, displaying much apparatus used, and often made, by him, as well as his own paintings (he could have been a professional artist). He and his wife are buried in a crypt in the basement, with a plaque recording his main achievements, which starts with "1846 Molecular dissymmetry". The Grande Amphitheatre of the Sorbonne is where France and the world honoured Pasteur at a great meeting on 27 Dec 1892 to celebrate his seventieth birthday. Jean PERRIN (18701942) was Professor at the University in 19101926. Nobel Prize in Physics, 1926, for confirming Einstein's theory of the Brownian motion. Main founder of the Palais de la D)couverte in 1937. Cofounder, with Borel, of the Centre National de la Recherch) Scientifique (CNRS, at 15 Quai AnatoleFrance, 7e). Commemorative plaque, with basrelief, on the west side of the little Square Jean Perrin which lies on the north side of the Palais de la D)couverte but which is now used as the forecourt to the Porte Champs (lys)es of the Grand Palais. Fran'oisAndr) Danican PHILIDOR (17261795), the first of the modern chess masters, was also an accomplished musician, a member of the choir at the Chapel Royal in VERSAILLES. At the age of 11, he composed a motet performed there. [Golombek. Murray, p. 60]. Two other Philidors are also listed in the Gramophone Classical Catalogue . (Charles) Emile PICARD (18561941) was born and died in Paris. He taught at the (cole Normale. Henri POINCAR( (18541912) lived at 63 Rue ClaudeBernard, 5e [Alexanderson]. He received his doctorate from the University of Paris in 1879. He taught briefly at Caen but soon returned to Paris where he remained. He was Professor of the Theory of Probability and Mathematical Physics in the University of Paris in 18861889, then Professor of Mathematical Astronomy and Celestial Mechanics from 1889. His 1890 memoir on the threebody problem includes the first attempt to mathematically describe chaos. His three volume Les M)thodes Nouvelles de la M)canique C)leste appeared in 1892, 1893, 1899. His three volume Le'ons de M)canique C)leste of 19051910 provided a simplified approach to the same material. Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1900. Louis POINSOT (17771859) was born in Paris and was in the first class of the (cole Polytechnique in 17941797. He became a civil engineer and was professor at the Lyc)e Bonaparte from 1819, but another source says he taught there until 1816. He was Professor of Analysis and Mechanics in 1809-1816, but another source says he was the first such professor in 18161825. About 1850, he suggested and Foucault created the gyroscope, which demonstrates the rotation of the earth an 1851 version is in the Conservatoire National des Arts et M)tiers, qv in Section 7A1. Later he was primarily an examiner and administrator. Died in Paris and is buried in P/re Lachaise. Sim)onDenis POISSON (17811840) was a student at the (cole Polytechnique, then assistant professor in 1802 and succeeded Fourier in 1806, when he was 25. He died at Sceaux. J. V. PONCELET (1788-1867) was Commandant of the (cole Polytechnique in 1848-1850. Gaspard Fran'ois Riche de PRONY (17551839) organised the calculation of new tables under the Republic, using division of labour which much influenced Babbage. He was first Professor of Analysis at the (cole Polytechnique from 1794 to 1815 and Director of the (cole des Ponts et Chauss)es from 1799 to 1839. [Hyman, p. 43.] Director of the Cadastre (Land Survey) from 1791. Petrus (= Pierre = Peter) RAMUS (151